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Edited by L. H. Bailey 



FARM POULTRY 



JUJf^ Sural ^mna S^mta 

The Soil. 

The Spraying of Plants. 

Milk and Its Products. 

The Fertility of the Land. 

The Principles of Fruit-Growinq. 

Bush-Fruits. 

Fertilizers. 

The Principles of Agriculture. 15th. Ed. 

Irrigation and Drainage. 

The Farmstead. 

Rural Wealth and Welfare, 

The Principles of Vegetable-Gardening. 

Farm Poultry. (Revised.) 

The Feeding of Animals. 

The Farmer's Business Handbook. 

The Diseases of Animals. 

The Horse. 

How to Choose a Farm. 

Forage Crops. 

Bacteria in Relation to Country Life. 

The Nursery-Book. 

Plant-Breeding. 4th Ed. 

The Forcing-Book. 

The Pruning-Book. 

Fruit-Growing in Arid Regions. 

Rural Hygiene. 

Dry-Farming. 

Law for the American Farmer. 

Farm Boys and Girls. 

The Training and Breaking of Horses. 

Others in preparation. 



FARM POULTRY 



A POPULAR SKETCH OF DOMESTIC FOWLS 
FOB TEE FARMER AND AMATEUR 



BY 

OEORGE C. WATSON, M.S. 



REVISED AND ENLARGED 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO.. Lfn>. 
1912 

All righti reserved 






^ 



4- 



Copyright, 1901, 1912 
By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 



Set up and electrotyped June, 1901 

Reprinted February, 1903; February, 1904; July, 1905; 

November, 1906; October, 1907; January, 1909; 

Jnly, 1909; October, 1910 

New Edition, Revised and Enlarged, September, 1912 



JlSount pieasiant Prefist 

J. Horace McFarland Company 
Harrisburg, Pa. 



CI.A3'^0853 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER I 

PAGE 

Poultry-Raising as a Business 1-12 

Extent of business 2 

Capital and land required 3 

Business suitable for many persons 9 

A variety of products 10 

Products easy to market 11 

CHAPTER II 

Egg Breeds of the Domestic Hen 13-40 

Classification as to utility 13 

General characteristics of egg breeds 16 

Leghorn 25 

Minorca 33 

Andalusian 35 

Spanish 36' 

Hamburg 37 

Red Cap 40 

CHAPTER III 

Meat Breeds 41-56 

General characteristics 42 

Brahma 47 

Cochin 51 

Langshan 53 

Faverolle 54 

(V) 



vi Contents 

CHAPTER IV 

PAGE 

General-Purpose Fowls 57-80 

General characteristics 59 

Plyinouth Rocks 62 

Wyandotte 68 

Orpington 70 

Java • •• • . 72 

Dominique 73 

Dorking 74 

Houdan 76 

Cornish Game * 77 

Rhode Island Red 79 

CHAPTER V 

Fancy Breeds. , 81-87 

Polish 82 

Game 84 

Silky 84 

Sultan 85 

Frizzle 85 

Bantam 86 

CHAPTER VI 

Buildings for Fowls: Location, Plans and Construc- 
tion 88-122 

Selection of suitable location as to markets 88 

Location of buildings 89 

Convenience 92 

Construction of houses 96 

Size of buildings 100 



Contents vii 

CHAPTER VII 



PAGE 



Buildings: Internal Arrangements and Yards 123-142 

Construction of perches 123 

Nests 126 

Drinking-foiintains • 130 

Dust-boxes 1^^ 

Yards and parks 135 

Orchards as ranges 140 

CHAPTER VIII 

Improvement and Breeding of Fowls 143-170 

Selection • 143 

Selecting eggs 1*45 

Breeding 1^2 

Heredity • • • • 1^2 

Variation 1^4 

In-and-in-breeding 15 ' 

Cross-breeding 160 

Pure-bred stock 163 

Improvement of common fowls 165 

Breed for utility 16S 

CHAPTER IX 

Feeding for Eggs and for Meat 171-201 

Exercise 1^2 

Quality of food ^ 172 

Forced feeding for eggs 174 

Grain food • 175 

Green food 179 

Meat food • • • • • 1^2 

Lime 1^^ 



viii Contents 

PAGE 

Salt 186 

Grain rations 193 

Feeding for meat or fattening 195 

Care of fattening fowls 197 

Cramming 198 

CHAPTER X 

Incubators and Brooders 202-223 

Incubators in general 203 

Artificial incubation 204 

Selection of an incubator 207 

Care of incubators 212 

Brooders and brooder houses 215 

Home-made brooders 221 

CHAPTER XI 

Feeding and Care of Little Chickens 224-239 

Food 225 

Rations 226 

Exercise 230 

Feeding-troughs and -hoppers 232 

Grit 233 

Drinking-fountains 234 

Brooders 236 

Brooder conditions 238 

CHAPTER XII 

Capons and Broilers 240-255 

Capon rearing 240 

Caponizing 249 

Preparing capons for market 250 

Broilers 251 



Contents ix 

CHAPTER XIII 

PAGE 

Ducks and Geese 256-279 

Ducks: General discussion 256 

Pekin 259 

Aylesbury 260 

Rouen 261 

Black Cayuga 263 

Ducks: Food and care 264 

Geese: General discussion 269 

Toulouse 271 

Embden. 272 

African 273 

Chinese 274 

Canadian or wild 275 

Geese : Food and care 276 

Pate de foie gras 277 

CHAPTER XIV 

Turkeys, Guineas, P^a-fowls, Pigeons 280-301 

Turkeys: General discussion '. 280 

Bronze 286 

Narragansett 287 

White Holland 287 

Buff .288 

Slate 288 

Black 288 

Bourbon Red 289 

Turkeys : General care 289 

Breeding stock 290 

Care and food for young 292 

Guineas 294 



X Contents 

* PAGE 

Pea-fowls 297 

Pigeons 298 

Squabs 300 



CHAPTER XV 

PREPAKING AND MARKETING POULTRY PRODUCTS 302-329 

Dressing poultry 303 

Packing and shipping , 309 

Shipping live poultry 317 

Eggs: Care and handling 318 

Preserving eggs 324 

Water-glass 326 

Lime-water 329 

CHAPTER XVI 

Diseases and Enemies 330-353 

Lice 330 

Mites , 334 

Gapes 335 

Roup 338 

Cholera. 342 

White Diarrhea 345 

Other diseases 347 

Vices 349 

Enemies 352 

APPENDIX 
Important Poultry Publications 355-361 



FARM POULTRY 



CHAPTER I 

POULTRY- RAISING AS A BUSINESS 

The importance of the poultry industry, not only 
in this country but in all countries, is now generally 
recognized. Particularly is this apparent to those 
who have made the subject a study. It is not 
necessary, therefore, in this book, to enter into an 
extended discussion of the present or possible use- 
fulness of domesticated fowls. It may be of interest, 
however, to note some of the difficulties that hinder, 
if they do not entirely prevent, the compilation of 
accurate statistics of the value of the poultry and 
poultry products of the United States. 

When one attempts to compare poultry-raising 
with other agricultural industries, he is confronted 
with more or less inaccurate data. Many, at first 
thought, place the value of this industry far below 
its true worth, and it will require but a moment's 
reflection to understand why this is so. Both the 
rural and suburban population look to the domestic 
fowls for a little help each day in providing the 
table with wholesome and palatable food. So gen- 
A (1) 



2 Farm Poultry 

eral is the consumption of fowls and of poultry- 
products that some of these products are found 
among the constituents of almost every well-pre- 
pared meal. As a large proportion of the poultry 
products go directly to supply the daily wants of 
the producers' families, it is impossible to ascertain 
with any degree of accuracy the quantity thus 
consumed. Very few records are kept by producers 
of either the fowls or eggs thus consumed, and 
whenever statements are made for the census- 
taker or others, the aggregate is much more likely 
to be underestimated than exaggerated. Conse- 
quently, published data are likely to be more or 
less misleading, and to give far too low value to 
the industry. 

The United States Census Reports for the last 
two census years give the following number of 
fowls on farms: 

» Per cent 

No. fowls No. fowls Increase + 

June 1, 1900 April 15, 1910 Decrease - 

Chickens 233,566,021 280,345,133 +20 

Turkeys 6,594,695 3,688,708 -44 

Ducks 4,785,850 2,906,525 -39 

Geese 5,676,788 4,431,980 -21.9 

As these figures do not include the fowls kept 
on village lots, they probably fall far short of rep- 
resenting the actual number in the country. It 
should be noticed that the time of taking the last 
census was much earlier in the season than that 
of the previous census. So the difference in number 



Number of Fowls 3 

does not necessarily mean that fewer turkeys, 
ducks, and geese are now kept than formerly, for 
without doubt the former figures include more 
young fowls than the latter. In like manner, the 
number of chickens determined April 15 by the 
1910 census consists largely of fowls maintained 
for breeding purposes, while the numbers as deter- 
mined by the enumerators of the previous census 
on June 1 necessarily included many young fowls. 
Consequently the increase in the development 
of this industry in this ^^pountry is without doubt 
much more than that indicated by the statistics 
of the census reports. 

LITTLE CAPITAL REQUIEED 

To a person contemplating a new enterprise or 
the extension of a business aheady established, 
one of the first questions to be solved is, ''What 
wiU it cost?" It often happens that the original or 
first cost of an enterprise prevents persons of 
moderate resources from making what in their 
judgment would be a safe investment. Probably 
there is no important branch of animal industry 
that requires so little outlay in labor and money 
as poultry-keeping Unlike many enterprises, the 
poultry business may be begun in a small way and 
conducted successfully with the expenditure of a 
very meager sum of money. 



Farm Poultry 

Pure-bred animals possessing individual merit, 
of families or of strains of blood that are recognized 
as being particularly valuable for the useful pur- 
poses for which these animals are maintained, 
have a high market value. Consequently one who 
begins with approved foundation stock must invest 
considerable capital in animals that are to be the 
beginning of his flock, herd or stud, as the case 
may be, before he really commences his breeding 
operations. With poultry, however, a small begin- 
ning, which is often desirable in order to give the 
preliminary training necessary to final success, 
may be made with the resources of an ordinary 
farm. This modest beginning would not in any 
way interfere with the development or extension 
of the business should circumstances and expe- 
rience warrant such a course. In this respect the 
poultry business furnishes a marked contrast to 
some other lines of work, particularly to those 
that require tools and machinery to place a finished 
product upon the market. If the business be largely 
increased, new and larger machines must be obtained 
in order to produce with the greatest economy, 
and consequently a sacrifice must be made in the 
equipment of the original small plant. 

To those about to make their first attempt in 
poultry-keeping on an extensive scale, it may be 
said that one of the safest ways, if not the only 
sure way to success, is to start in a moderate way 



Understand the Business 5 

and to delay long enough to learn the business 
thoroughly before much is invested. Mistakes will 
certainly be made and difficult problems will pre- 
sent themselves for solution before success can be 
attained in any extended way. Many have made 
the experiment of investing considerable money 
and labor before the business was even fairly well 
understood, and failure, or discouragement — which 
often amounts to the same thing — has been the 
consequent result. 

WHiile failures due solely to inexperience are 
in evidence most of the time, yet new recruits 
are continually rushing forward to repeat the dis- 
aster. This is without doubt due largely to the 
desii-e on the part of many to accumulate money 
rapidly and before they have time to pass through 
the important apprenticeship of learning the busi- 
ness. Undoubtedly many are tempted to go into 
the poultry business on a somewhat extensive 
scale because a few fowls are kept on many farms 
seemingly with profit, and yet without much care. 
The small flocks that have the run of the farm 
may thrive with little care, but large colonies demand 
close attention from one who has passed the stage 
of a novice, if the greatest success is to be attained. 

Many failures in the poultry business have 
resulted from a neglect of some or many of the little 
details so necessary to success. 

Individuals have succeeded admirably even 



6 Farm Poultry 

beyond expectation, when they were able person- 
ally to look after the business and to see that nothing 
was neglected, but failed entirely when they under- 
took to greatly enlarge the business and to trust 
the details to others who were giving their services 
for a moderate consideration. 

TIME OF YEAR TO BEGIN 

The question may arise as to the best time of 
the year to begin, for one who is wholly unacquainted 
with any of the phases of poultry work. 

This perhaps is not so important, provided the 
manner of making the beginning has been fully 
decided upon, so that the time of year will not 
wholly determine the way in which this enterprise 
will be begun. If one should decide to make a 
start during the late summer or fall months, in 
all probability it will be found quite advantageous 
to make a beginning through the purchase of mature 
fowls. Whereas, if the beginning should be made 
in the late winter or early spring, eggs may be 
purchased so that the beginning may be effected 
in part or wholly in this manner. 

If time and circumstances will permit, the fall 
of the year is an excellent time to begin, for then 
fowls may be purchased somewhat cheaper than 
in the spring, and the experience of caring for them 
during the winter will prove of great value during 



How to Begin 7 

the coming season of incubation and rearing of 
young fowls with its many new experiences and 
perplexities. One should gain all knowledge possible 
as to care of fowls before this busy season approaches. 

COMPARATIVELY LITTLE LAND NECESSARY 

Unless it is desirable to raise all, or nearly all, 
of the grain which the fowls require, on the same 
farms on which they are kept, comparatively httle 
land will be required. Especially is this true with 
ducks and chickens. Turkeys, on account of their 
roving nature, do best when given a wide range. 
Laying hens, however, will do well when confined 
in a comparatively small yard or ''run'^ if the 
ground is kept clean by cultivation. Four or five 
acres will afford ample space for eight hundred 
hens if suitable arrangements are made to keep 
them in moderately small flocks. This amount of 
land will also provide ample space for the rearing 
of the young required for the maintenance of the 
flock. If the grain food be purchased, very httle 
land will be necessary, — only enough for the houses, 
yards and sufficient space whereon to grow the 
green or succulent food. A very small area will 
be sufficient on which to raise the green food if 
the land be kept in a high state of fertility. It is 
true that in some parts of the year it will be advan- 
tageous to have a wide range, if one can be provided. 



8 Farm Poultry 

Fowls, like other classes of live stock, require 
more exercise while they are growing and devel- 
oping, and do best in a large run or park, as so 
much depends on a strong body and constitution 
when the period of greatest usefulness is reached. 
It is of relatively more importance, therefore, to 
have a large run for the young and immature 
fowls than for the mature birds which are being 
maintained solely for the production of eggs. Fat- 
tening fowls require comparatively little exercise, 
their health is not materially impaired by a short 
confinement, and more rapid gain in weight is 
secured by confining them. 

QUICK RETURNS FROM MONEY INVESTED 

Of the various branches of animal industry 
there is probably none that brings such quick 
returns as poultry-keeping. It matters not whether 
the poultry-raiser desires to produce eggs, meat 
in the form of broilers, mature fowls, or capons, 
the product is ready for the market within a com- 
paratively short time. Even though the slowest 
method be pursued, — that of selecting eggs for 
hatching, from which are to be reared the fowls 
to produce eggs, — there should be no difficulty 
in producing for the market in from five to eight 
months. 

With other classes of live stock, not only is 



Poultry Raising Attractive 9 

a much longer time required in which to secure 
returns, but also a greater money outlay at the 
beginning, as above stated. The fact that so httle 
time is required for the development of a paying 
business makes poultry-keeping an attractive field 
for those having little capital, and who must enter 
some business that will bring quick returns. 

MAY BE CONDUCTED BY PERSONS OF EITHER SEX 

The fact that the poultry business requires 
little land, few and inexpensive buildings and no 
heavy and comphcated machinery, makes it well 
suited to persons of either sex who are unable 
physically, or who do not desire, to perform heavy 
manual labor or any work that requires the outlay 
of considerable effort and strength. 

Those who desire to work more or less out-of- 
doors, and who are willing to attend regularly to 
details, may find congenial employment, and may 
undertake to perform the necessary operations of 
poultry-keeping without the feeling that they are 
starting in a business for which they are not fitted. 
It will frequently be noticed that success in business 
is attained by those who for various reasons are 
more or less unfitted for the work which they have 
undertaken, and who consequently achieve success 
through great perseverance alone in the face of 
greater difficulties than their competitors experience. 



10 Farm Poultry 

Many people of means and refined tastes have 
profitably taken up the study and occupation of 
poultry-keeping as a means of affording health- 
ful out-of-door exercise, in order to regain failing 
health or to afford a change and rest from pro- 
fessional activity. Many women have become 
expert breeders, or producers of various poultry 
products, and are recognized as authorities in their 
respective lines of work. There is no branch of 
animal industry that offers so many inducements 
to women as some of the various branches of poultry- 
keeping, particularly if they desire to experiment 
in the production of new forms, or to improve for 
their particular purpose the breed or variety which 
they have selected as best adapted for their use. 

* 

A GREAT VARIETY OF PRODUCTS 

Quite unlike other lines of live-stock work, in 
which only a few products are raised on the farm 
ready for the market, poultry-keeping fortunately 
offers to the poultryman and farmer an oppor- 
tunity to choose from a number of marketable 
products those which he prefers to provide, or 
which in his judgment will most hkely bring 
pleasure or financial success. It is noticed that 
circumstances are often such that certain lines 
of poultry work can be conducted with greater 
success than others, so that those who study closely 



Choice of Products 11 

their own adaptabilities are enabled to select at 
the outset the line of work that is likely to prove 
the most satisfactory. 

To carry out this idea somewhat further by 
means of an illustration, it will readily be seen 
that if a poultryman had a somewhat limited space 
for fowls, including both buildings and yards, so 
that it would be quite impossible to keep to advan- 
tage more than a few hundred at most, he should 
either devote his energy to the production of fowls 
of high merit for breeding purposes or confine him- 
self to egg production. The rearing of young fowls 
for market demands more space both in- and out- 
of-doors than a business of the same magnitude in 
which egg production is the chief object. The 
various classes of domestic hen, with turkeys, 
ducks, geese, and pigeons, furnish a great variety of 
products that find ready sale in the markets. From 
these the farmer or poultryman may select those 
that offer to him the greatest special inducements. 

PRODUCTS EASY TO MARKET 

With modern facihties for rapid transportation, 
the various poultry products may be sent to market 
hundreds of miles distant and be placed before 
the consumer in excellent condition. Eggs only 
a few days old may be served as food after being 
shipped hundreds of miles by express. 



12 Farm Poultry 

While the best products may be sent long dis- 
tances by express with profit, the poorer ones sel- 
dom pay for the extra cost of rapid transit. Supe- 
rior products create new demands. Since more 
attention is now paid to poultry-raising in this 
country than was given to the industry but a few 
years ago, many highly prized special articles 
have been produced which find a ready market 
at remunerative prices in nearly all of the large 
cities. As better products are placed on the market 
and as people of means become aware of this fact, 
the demand for a good article soon becomes as 
strong and constant as that for the cheaper and 
more staple articles. As soon as a worthy article 
is produced regularly, -customers are ready to pur- 
chase. The best on the market is usually sold first, 
and at prices considerably in advance of that for 
common or ordinary grades. Better work with 
poultry will eventually insure better products, 
which find ready sales, and, in turn, create new 
demands. It should be the aim of each person who 
is about to enter the poultry business to produce 
the best which the market affords. The greatest 
skill is required to furnish the best, but articles 
which are produced with great skill and a thorough 
knowledge of the business usually yield the greatest 
profits. 



CHAPTER II 

EGG BREEDS OF THE DOMESTIC HEN 

Agriculturists may, for convenience, classify 
fowls as to their useful qualities as — 

Egg Breeds General-Purpose Breeds 

Meat Breeds Fancy Breeds 

While this classification gives considerable infor- 
mation, in a general way, yet it should not be 
inferred that the distinctions between these classes 
are constant or very pronounced. In other words, 
a classification that is based on utihty does not 
make use of positive characteristics. The distinc- 
tions are relative and therefore quite variable, as 
the usefulness of any breed will depend to a large 
extent upon various conditions, as food, care, 
climate, etc. Again, the so-called general-purpose 
fowls form a connecting link between those which 
are most highly esteemed as egg producers and 
the heavy, clumsy Asiatic fowls, whose most useful 
quality is the production of large bodies that are 
highly valued for table use. From the nature of 
the classification and the variation of the fowls 
from the standpoint of usefulness, it will readily 

(13) 



14 Farm Poultry 

be seen that different breeders may honestly differ 
as to the exact position of certain breeds. 

To further illustrate, what would be recognized 
as a meat breed by one breeder might by another 
be placed among the general-purpose fowls on 
account of its good laying qualities. As we find 
all grades of domesticated cattle, from the heavy 
strictly beef type on the one hand, whose useful- 
ness lies in meat production alone, to the dairy cow 
on the other hand, whose tendency toward milk 
production is so strong that she can with difficulty 
be induced to lay on enough flesh to look well, so 
do we find many intermediate grades of fowls, 
from the large, massive form noted for the produc- 
tion of flesh to the small, nervous fowl so famed 
for egg production. The inexperienced person 
will find more or less confusion on account of this 
faulty classification, and mistakes are to be expected, 
and these will be corrected only by study and 
observation. 

As these terms are current and are likely to 
be used in the future, a brief discussion of them 
may aid in arriving at a better understanding of 
the points at issue. 

The egg breeds include all the small or medium- 
sized fowls that have a strong tendency toward egg 
production. They are generally poor sitters, at 
least while young, of a nervous temperament, being 
easily frightened, and more readily take to flight 



Classes Described 15 

than do the other breeds that are noted for utihty. 
They are maintained for the production of eggs 
and for this purpose are unexcelled. Poultrymen 
who rear large flocks for egg production find it 
necessary, and often remunerative, to dispose as 
market fowls of large numbers of young male birds 
and also old hens that have passed the period of 
greatest usefulness as egg producers; yet this is 
incidental to the production of eggs and should not 
in any way mask the fact that egg production is 
the greatest useful quality of these fowls. The 
Leghorns, Spanish, Minorcas, and Hamburgs are 
good representatives of this class. 

The meat breeds are larger than the egg or the 
general-purpose breeds. The largest breeds of 
fowls are represented in this class. They are gen- 
erally considered to be poor layers except, pos- 
sibly, in a few cases where the pullets are fairly good 
winter layers. They are heavy-bodied, slow-moving 
fowls, of gentle disposition, and are persistent 
sitters. The Brahmas, Cochins, and Langshans 
are representative breeds of this class. 

The general-purpose breeds, as the term indicates, 
include those fowls that are of medium size and 
furnish a good quality of meat when properly fattened 
and prepared for table use. For certain methods 
of cooking, these fowls are preferred by many to 
the larger bodies and coarser-grained flesh of the 
distinctively meat breeds. As these fowls are good 



16 Farm Poultry 

egg producers, when kept under favorable conditions 
for egg production, they have become most popular 
with a large class of poultry-keepers who main- 
tain comparatively small flocks largely to supply 
the demands of the home table. Farmers and others, 
who keep a few fowls as a secondary consideration, 
find this class most useful. Aside from furnishing 
the home table they are sufficiently economical 
in the production of both eggs and meat to permit 
the surplus to be sold on the market to good advan- 
tage. The Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, and 
Rhode Island Reds, are familiar breeds of this class. 
The fancy breeds include those fowls that are 
reared on account of their peculiar or pleasing 
appearance, and are not bred exclusively for utility. 
While many of the so-called fancy breeds may 
serve a useful purpose in furnishing eggs and meat, 
they cannot successfully compete with other classes 
when usefulness alone is considered. The Polish, 
Bantams, Frizzles, and Silkies may be taken as 
familiar representatives. 

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS AND SIZE OF EGG BREEDS 

While those breeds and varieties of fowls that 
may be classed as distinctively egg producers vary 
somewhat in size and form, yet they differ so 
materially from the general-purpose and meat breeds 
that they may well be placed by themselves if for 



Egg Breeds Described 17 

no other reason than the one distinguishing char- 
acteristic of size. Almost without exception the 
noted egg-producing breeds are small or medium 
in size and possessed of a neat, trim appearance, 
which gives them an air of activity. They are 
also somewhat longer-legged in proportion to their 
size than the meat breeds, yet those having the 
most robust constitution do not appear to be small 
or long-legged. 

While mature fowls of some of the heaviest 
breeds of this class should weigh from six to nine 
pounds, yet the weight is seldom mentioned in 
descriptions of the most noted egg -producers of 
this class. This is undoubtedly due to the fact 
that egg production is the chief consideration, 
regardless of the weight of the fowl. 

The specific purpose for which these fowls are 
reared being egg production, the breeder does 
not care to sacrifice this product for increased 
meat production, except as increased \dgor in the 
individual is hkely to bring an increase in size, 
a subject that is discussed somewhat fully in the 
chapter on breeding. 

Disposition. — Almost without exception, a ner- 
vous, active disposition is characteristic of the 
various varieties of fowls which are noted for egg 
production. They are naturally quick, alert, easily 
frightened, and when once thoroughly aroused 
fly almost with the ease of wild birds. On account 



18 Farm Poultry 

of this activity, they hke a wide range and ordinarily 
do best when not closely confined. Many varieties, 
however, thrive well when kept within inclosures, 
if the confinement is not too rigorous, and good 
judgment is exercised in providing other conditions 
that are most sanitary and congenial to the fowls. 

Whenever inclosures are provided to restrict 
their range, careful handling is necessary in order 
that the practice of using their wings as a means 
of locomotion may be avoided as far as possible. 
Habit, when once acquired, is not easily changed; 
consequently breeders find it difficult to correct 
the annoying tendency to fly on slight provocation 
when the habit is well formed. Many a fine fowl 
has suffered the death penalty for continually 
flying over inclosures. Whenever a few fowls of 
a flock or pen have acquired the habit of flying 
over the inclosures or fences, a reasonable modi- 
fication of the inclosure to correct the evil rarely 
suffices. It has been said with much aptness 
that ''Egg breeds of fowls, like honey bees, require 
slow movements and careful handling from the 
attendant, for success, while hasty movements 
bring annoyance and disaster." 

All fowls may become gentle and tame by con- 
tinued careful handling, so that the charac- 
teristic alertness of the egg breeds need not pre- 
vent the use of these types, even though tame 
fowls are required. Leghorn and Minorca hens 



Carefulness of Handling 19 

have frequently been seen to perch on a basket 
carried on the arm of an attendant who was enter- 
ing the pen or yard, in order that they might secure 
the first morsel of a coveted food. This degree of 
familiarity is attained only by continued thought- 
fulness and gentleness on the part of the attendant. 

The nervous fowls of the egg breeds, even though 
they have become gentle and tame by careful hand- 
hng, are more suspicious of strangers than are the 
heavier and slower moving fowls of the general- 
purpose and ilieat breeds. Consequently many 
poultrymen will not admit strangers to the yards 
and pens occupied by laying hens. 

Early maturity, — The noted egg breeds are 
classed among the earliest maturing fowls. In 
fact, they almost form a class by themselves if 
judged from a standpoint of development. Early 
in life they assume the appearance of miniature 
adults, both in general outline or conformation 
and in the growth of plumage. 

The early feathering greatly enhances the prob- 
ability of the young chick living to reach maturity. 
Other things being equal, the more rapidly the 
young chick ' 'feathers out" the more hardy it 
becomes. The time when a young fowl is growing 
feathers rapidly is always a delicate period in its 
existence. It is weU known by those who keep song 
birds in cages that the molting period is a trying 
one for their pets. As these songsters in the molt- 



20 Farm poultry 

ing period are producing feathers, which make 
great demands on their systems, their condition 
is very similar to that of the young fowl that is 
producing feathers for protection at the expense 
of its physical organization. It is difficult, if not 
impossible, for a fowl having a weak constitution 
to produce feathers rapidly. 

While all egg breeds are not of equal hardiness 
in this respect, yet as a class they pass rapidly 
through the most delicate periods of infancy, 
which goes a long way toward placing them as 
the most hardy of fowls. The individuals of egg 
breeds develop combs and wattles early in life, 
which still further give them the appearance of 
small adults. At no time do they appear so ill 
proportioned and awkward as do the good-sized 
though undeveloped young of the larger breeds. 

Poor sitters. — All noted egg-producing fowls are 
poor and uncertain sitters. The term "non-sitters'' 
has frequently been used to designate various 
breeds of fowls possessed of a marked tendency 
toward egg production at the expense of a dis- 
position to incubate. 

Breeders have long been trying to further 
develop the tendency of egg production that is 
inherent in all the Mediterranean fowls, which has 
resulted in producing an exclusively egg-producing 
machine. The marked development in egg pro- 
duction in this class of fowls has been accomplished 



Unreliable Incubators 21 

at the expense of other desirable quahties. In 
other words, the whole energy of the fowl is devoted 
to the one particular purpose of producing eggs. 
That is so far as the breeders and improvers have 
been able to direct the energies of the fowl toward 
securing increased amount of useful products. So 
far has this been carried that breeders are now 
seeking to breed fowls having stronger constitutions, 
that this specialization may be carried to a still 
greater extreme. 

The tendency toward egg production has become 
so great that the hen has comparatively little 
desire to rear young and otherwise exercise her 
maternal instincts. Almost without exception, those 
breeds of fowls that are noted especially for egg 
production cannot be depended upon for natural 
incubation if any considerable number of fowls are 
to be reared. Breeders are therefore compelled to 
resort to artificial incubation, or to keep largely if 
not wholly, for incubation, some fowls of another 
breed, whose maternal instincts make them good 
mothers. Occasionally individuals of the egg breeds 
become "broody" and under favorable conditions 
prove to be persistent sitters, but too frequently 
the desire to incubate is but a fickle one and indulged 
in at the expense of the owner who supplies the 
"sitting of eggs." As the hens become older the 
tendency to incubate becomes stronger. While 
these fowls are extremely poor sitters, yet so long 



22 Farm Poultry 

as they continue to incubate, though it be some- 
what rarely, the term "non-sitters" cannot strictly 
be applied to them. 

Good foragers. — These egg breeds rank among 
the most active and industrious fowls, as many 
a good housewife can testify whose cherished 
flower garden has undergone a system of surface 
culture instituted by a Leghorn hen. All the noted 
egg producers are very alert, and are well suited 
to foraging, and may obtain a considerable portion 
of their living if a wide range is provided. They 
are not only active, but seem to be constantly 
on the lookout for food. It is true that often, 
under otherwise favorable conditions, they seem 
to endure close confinement very well. This is 
undoubtedly due to the fact that they are hardy 
and will stand more or less abuse and still maintain 
a thrifty appearance. They thrive in spite of con- 
finement, not because of it. The most skilful breed- 
ers, who are unable to give their fowls the desired run 
or yard, almost invariably provide means for giving 
the fowls exercise, which may be done by requiring 
them to scratch among litter for their food. This 
will in a degree modify the evil of close confinement. 

There is not the least doubt that many fowls 
that are now kept in close confinement would be more 
healthy, give a larger percentage of fertile eggs, 
and in the end prove much more profitable if greater 
freedom could be afforded them. 



Sensitive to Cold 23 

Sensitiveness to cold. — All of the noted egg breeds 
have large combs and wattles, which make them 
sensitive to low temperatures. Some of the breeds 
having extremely large combs and wattles are 
so liable to have them frosted in the colder latitudes 
that warm quarters must be provided, if the pro- 
duction of eggs in the winter ' time is a requisite. 
Theory and practice agree that a lower degree of 
temperature will be endured without serious results 
if the quarters occupied by the fowls are free from 
drafts. These fowls may become accustomed to 
a comparatively low temperature without any 
injury whatever provided actual freezing of any 
parts does not occur. Pure air, even though it 
be cold, seems quite essential to the highest degree 
of health and to greatest vigor. 

Breeders have sought to remedy this somewhat 
serious objection by breeding ^'rose-combs," that 
are not so readily frozen. In practice this is found 
to be only a partial remedy, as the wattles, when 
extremely large, are almost as sensitive to cold 
as the large, thin, upright combs. 

The egg breeds are much closer feathered than 
the fleshy Asiatics (Brahmas, Cochins, and Lang- 
shans), which endure low temperatures so well. 
The thicker coat of fluffy feathers of the Asiatics 
undoubtedly forms a thicker dead-air space than 
do the thinner and more compact coats of the 
egg breeds. The comparatively long and naked 



24 Farm Poultry 

shanks, large combs and wattles, with a compact 
coat of feathers, ill prepare the latter to withstand 
the severity of the northern winter when more or 
less exposed by the neglect or indifference too 
often accorded the fowls on many farms. 

It should not be inferred, however, that these 
fowls are not suited to the northern, central and 
New England states, for they are the best winter 
layers when warm and comfortable quarters are 
provided. Even when more or less neglected they 
may still prove to be wholly satisfactory as winter 
layers on account of their hardiness and their 
great natural tendency to produce eggs. The very 
fact that they do so well under comparative neglect 
is one of the chief reasons for such unsatisfactory 
results in poultry-keeping: fowls that will live with 
little care are likely to receive little care. It often 
happens that the most delicate breeds receive 
the most care. 

BKEEDS AND VARIETIES 

The most noted egg breeds now reared in the 
United States include the so-called Mediterranean 
fowls, which comprise the following breeds: Leg- 
horn, Minorca, Ancona, Andalusian, and Span- 
ish. To these should be added the Hamburg, 
Red Cap, and perhaps some others. Some of these 
breeds are further subdivided into numerous varie- 



Breeds and Varieties 25 

ties which partake of the same general form and 
disposition but differ greatly in color of plumage. 

In producing so great a variety in plumage as 
seen in the numerous varieties of some breeds, 
notably the Leghorn, foreign blood has been intro- 
duced which has modified, to some extent, the 
lajdng propensities. At first thought the practice 
of introducing the blood of an alien breed in the 
formation of a new variety of an egg breed would 
be condemned; but when it is once well understood 
that crossing within certain limits brings increased 
vigor to the progeny, it may be seen that for egg 
production alone the new variet}^, which is given 
a httle more robustness, may be made to pro- 
duce as many eggs by a process of . moderately 
forced feeding as the somewhat more delicate pure 
breed whose inherent tendency to egg production 
may be a little stronger. 

Leghorn. — This is one of the Mediterranean 
breeds whose name is supposed to have been derived 
from the city of Leghorn, in Italy, whence they 
are thought to have been brought to America. 
The early history of the breed is now more or less 
obscure, and this is due, no doubt, in a large degree, 
to the fact that they were unpopular for many 
years after they were introduced into this country. 
Although they are credited with being introduced 
in the early part of the nineteenth century, it 
was not until after the middle of the century that 



26 



Farm Poultry 



they attracted much attention. As the popular 
animals and crops are most ' written about, it is 
not strange that a more or less unpopular breed 
should pass for nearly half a century with com- 
paratively slight notice. Since the introduction 




f 







Fig. 1. A White i^egnorn cockerel. 

of the Leghorns, however, they have been consider- 
ably changed and bred to that degree of perfec- 
tion that has designated them an Americanized, 
if not an American breed. In the early history 
of these fowls in this country they were spoken 



Varieties of Leghorns 



27 



of as being of various colors yet all partaking of 
the same general nature, and were recognized as 
belonging to the same breed. The different va- 




FiG. 2. White Leghorns. 

rieties that are now recognized had not then been 
formed. 

All varieties of Leghorns are comparatively 
small in size, and consequently are not well suited 
to those who depend largely upon their fowls for 



28 Farm Poultry 

the supply of fresh meat for the table. They are 
active and do not fatten so readily under ordinary 
conditions as larger and less active breeds. These 
fowls are hardy, and all varieties are good layers, 
most of them being extremely prolific. 

The fact of their being hardy in all stages of 
development, as well as extremely good layers, 
fits them for the farm, where a considerable revenue 
is expected from the sale of eggs and where com- 
paratively little importance is placed on the pro- 
duction of meat. They are noted for laying early 
in life; frequently early-hatched pullets lay at 
five months of age and under favorable conditions 
will lay well throughout the winter and summer 
months. Many records of more than two hundred 
eggs per year from single birds are known, and even 
large flocks have produced two hundred eggs per 
hen in a single year. 

The Leghorns are comparatively light eaters 
and are somewhat less expensive to raise to maturity 
than larger and heavier-bodied fowls. All va- 
rieties of Leghorns are active and do best if given 
wide liberty and if permitted to take much exercise 
in search of food. 

The varieties of the Leghorn breed are: 

Single-comb Brown Single-comb Buff 

Rose-comb Brown Rose-comb Buff 

Single-comb White Single-comb Black 

Rose-comb White Silver 



Varieties 



29 



All varieties except the Rose-combs have large 
single combs, which, in the males, should be thin, 
firm and erect. In the females they should fall 




Fig. 3. Buff Leghorn cockerel (one-fifth size). 

gracefully to one side, particularly during the 
laying period. 

The White and the Brown varieties are older 
than the others and are usually selected when egg 
production is the sole object. Some of the new 



30 Farm Poultry 

varieties have not' been bred pure long enough to 
become thoroughly fixed in their distinctive char- 
acteristics. 

There is practically no difference between the 
White and the Brown varieties in the number of 
eggs produced. The White, however, lays some- 
what larger eggs than the Brown, and the shells 
are of a purer white; that is, the shells of the Brown 
Leghorn are a little tinted, although they readily 
pass for white eggs. The color of the shells is of 
minor importance, although it is recognized as one 
of the fancy points when highest-priced eggs are 
produced. In some markets white eggs sell for the 
highest prices ; in other markets brown eggs are 
preferred. Under ordinary conditions the difference 
in the color will be of little or no value. If, however, 
the poultryman desires to produce the highest- 
priced eggs, some attention should be given to the 
color and other characteristics which go to make 
up uniformity of product. 

It needs no argument to sustain the assertion 
that, other things being equal, those fowls that 
lay the largest eggs are to be preferred. At first 
thought it may appear to be of more importance 
to those who aim to produce eggs for their own 
table than to those who produce eggs for the market 
to be sold by the dozen. It should not be forgotten, 
however, that continued success in any business 
requires the business man to satisfy his customers. 



&ize of Eggs 



31 



He should aim, therefore, to produce good-sized 
eggs, which will be acceptable not only as to quaUty 
but also as to weight. It will be evident to all 
that those fowls which lay the greatest weight of 
eggs during the year will be the most economical 
for the farmer to keep to supply the wants of his 




Fig. 4. Buff Leghorn pullet (one-sixth size). 

own table. The difference in expense of keeping 
fowls which lay different-sized eggs is not commen- 
surate with the difference in the value of the prod- 
uct. This subject will be given a fuller discussion 
in another chapter. 

It is asserted that some of the other and newer 
varieties of Leghorns are equally as good egg pro- 



32 Farm Poultry ^ 

ducers as the White and the Brown varieties. How- 
ever, the majority of practical poultrymen who 
have selected a variety of the Leghorns and have 
entered into the business of egg production for 
profit select either the White or the Brown variety. 
Fowls of a solid color, like the White or the Black 
variety of the Leghorn breed, often prove most 




Fig. 5. Single-comb Brown Leghorn hen (two-thirteenths size). 

satisfactory in the hands of a poultryman whose 
primary object is to produce eggs, and whose sec- 
ondary object is to sell his surplus stock for breed- 
ing purposes at something more than the price of 
which dressed poultry brings in the market. The 
reason for this is readily seen when we consider 
that old fowls must be disposed of and be replaced 
by younger and more vigorous stock. Such stock 



Develop Useful Qualities 33 

may frequently be sold and used for breeders after 
having served a period of forced egg production, 
provided it represents fairly well the type of fowls 
to which it belongs. Fowls are more likely to rep- 
resent a type in color if they are solid-colored than 
if the plumage is distinguished by various markings, 
as seen in many of the useful breeds. In other 
words, the poultryman finds it much easier to develop 
the one point of egg production than to breed 
for plumage and develop for egg production at the 
same time. One important principle in stock breed- 
ing should not be forgotten, — that it is much easier 
to develop one useful quality to its greatest per- 
fection than to develop two qualities which are 
not closely correlated. Consequently, it is found 
much easier to produce strong, robust fowls of a 
soHd color for egg production than to produce 
equally good birds of a colored variety, for both 
exhibition and useful quahties. 

Minorca. — This breed is thought to have been 
introduced into England from the island of Minorca 
in the Mediterranean Sea, and it is said by some 
poultry authorities to be the progenitor of the White- 
faced Black Spanish breed. The varieties of this 
breed are: 

Single-comb Black Rose-comb Black 

Single-comb White 

These are the heaviest of the Mediterranean 
fowls. 



34 



Farm Poultry 



Of the Single-comb Black variety the cock 
should weigh 9 and the hen 73^ pounds. Of the 
other varieties the cock should weigh 8 and the 
hen 63^2 pounds. 




Fig. 6. Black Minorca cockerel (one-seventh size). 

They have the great laying tendencies of the 
fowls of this class. Lewis Wright, writing of Eng- 
lish fowls, places them second on the list of egg 
producers. In appearance they resemble the Leg- 
horns, although they have larger combs and wattles. 
The solid color is in their favor, although there is 
a tendency toward white in the primaries of the 



Minorcas 35 

Black variety. They have not been so popular' 
for egg production as the Leghorns, although they 
are coming more into popular favor. The eggs of 
this breed are large and white. They average about 
eight to the pound. As Americans prefer fowls 
having yellow skin and shanks, the Minorcas are 




Fig. 7. Black Minorca hen lone-seventh size). 

therefore placed at a disadvantage, as their skin is 
white and the shanks and feet of a dark leaden 
color approaching black. 

Andalusian. — This breed is thought to be native 
to Andalusia, a province in the southern part 
of Spain. It is a large, hardy breed of the Med- 



36 Farm Poultry 

^terranean class. These fowls have not been popular 
in the United States, partly owing, no doubt, to 
the color of their skin and shanks. The skin is 
white and the shanks and toes are slaty blue. For 
farm purposes they are considered about the same 
as the Minorcas. There is only one variety of this 
breed — the Blue. The plumage is of a bluish gray 
or dove color, approaching black on the back. 
They do not breed so true to color as some of the 
other breeds of this class. They are excellent layers 
but are not supplanting the Leghorns for this pur- 
pose. They are classed with the non-sitters, but 
have a somewhat greater tendency to incubate 
than Leghorns do. The cock should weigh 6 and 
the hen 5 pounds. 

Spanish. — Now known as the White-faced Black 
Spanish. This breed has been bred pure for a great 
many years in England. It is called the oldest 
of the non-sitting varieties. There seems to be no 
doubt in the minds of many authorities that this 
Spanish breed came from some of the Mediter- 
ranean countries, and probably from Spain. The 
fowls are somewhat longer-legged in proportion 
to the size of the body than the other breeds of 
this class. They are glossy black throughout, 
without any white or gray feathers. The shanks 
and toes are dark in color, leaden blue approach- 
ing black. The Spanish is not so hardy as the 
other breeds mentioned, particularly when imma- 



White-faced Black Spanish 37 

ture and subjected to more or less dampness. The 
chickens do not feather so rapidly as the Leghorns 
and are considered more dehcate. On account, no 
doubt, of the somewhat more dehcate constitution, 
the eggs are more or less infertile, and breeders 
consequently are forced to keep a somewhat smaller 
number of females with one male than with other 
breeds of fowls noted for egg production. Breed- 
ers have attempted, and succeeded in a large meas- 
ure, in developing more fancy points with the 
White-faced Black Spanish than with other noted 
egg breeds of a sohd color. This breeding for 
fancy points is thought to have weakened the con- 
stitution considerably. On account of the develop- 
ment of these fancy points, some practical poultry- 
keepers are inclined to consider the Spanish as a 
fancy breed rather than to class it among the most 
useful ones. While they will undoubtedly produce 
a good supply of eggs under favorable conditions, 
yet the fact remains that few if any practical poul- 
trymen select them solely for egg production. 
The white face is a distinguishing feature of this 
fowl, as the white of the face and the ear lobe form 
a continuous smooth, white surface extending 
down below the wattles and uniting in front. They 
have large, single combs. For farm purposes they 
should be placed after the Leghorns, Minorcas, 
Andalusians, and Anconas. 

Hamburg. — The Hamburgs have long been known 



38 Farm Poultry 

as prolific egg producers. This breed consists of 
six varieties: 

Goldeu-spangled Golden-penciled 

Silver-spangled Silver-penciled 

White Black 

The Hamburg breed was introduced into Eng- 
land from Holland or North Germany, and eventu- 
ally took the name of the noted seaport, Hamburg, 
although they were known at that time, and for 
many years after their introduction into Great 
Britain, as the ^^Dutch every-day layers," or "ever- 
lasting layers." They are small, active fowls, and 
are recognized as being extremely good layers if 
kept under favorable conditions. It is said that 
when properly kept they will equal the Leghorns in 
egg production, although as a matter of fact com- 
paratively few poultrymen select Hamburgs in pref- 
erence to the Mediterranean fowls when egg pro- 
duction is the sole, or even the chief, object. They 
are quite as difficult to keep in confinement as any 
of the Mediterraneans, being small, light, and easily 
frightened. Their tendency to fly makes it difficult 
to keep them in the yards or runs. Of all breeds, 
probably there is none that likes a wide range 
better than the Hamburgs. Their eggs are small 
and white, being somewhat smaller than those of 
the Leghorns. All varieties have blue, or leaden 
blue, shanks and toes, except, possibly, the Black, 
which may have dark, leaden blue or black shanks 



Hamburgs 



39 



and toes. All have rose combs, which terminate in a 
spike or point at the rear. This point is usually some- 
what elevated, and is one of the characteristic 
features of the Hamburg comb. When these fowls 
are entered for competition at shows or exhibitions 
there is no weight qualification. Their small size 




Fig. 8. Silver-spangled Hamburg cock. 

makes them unprofitable as table fowls; then, too, 
the color of their shanks and skin is against them 
for table use. The chickens are not noted for their 
vigor, and it is said that both old and young are 
likely to suffer from want of cleanliness more than 
any other egg breed, with the possible exception 
of the White-faced Black Spanish. Wright says 
they do not stand crowding well, and that 'Vhere 



40 Farm Poultry 

six Brahmas could be kept, four Hamburgs are 
quite enough." 

Red Cap. — This is recognized as a distinct 
breed, yet the fowls resemble the Hamburgs in 
many respects. They are somewhat larger than 
the Hamburgs, and compare with them in size 
much as the Minorcas compare with the Leg- 
horns. They are quite hardy, and are extremely 
good layers. They have large rose combs, which 
have a tendency to grow somewhat irregular. 
This makes them difficult to breed for exhibition 
purposes. They have slate-colored shanks. The 
plumage is red and black. Cocks should weigh 
73^^, hen 63^, cockerel 6, and pullet 5 pounds. 



CHAPTER III 

MEAT BREEDS 

Those breeds that are reared especially for 
the production of meat, either for home consump- 
tion or for the market, are good-sized, compactly 
built fowls, probably of iVsiatic origin. They are 
much heavier than those that are reared especially 
for egg production and differ from them almost 
as much in general outline as they do in size and 
weight. It should be borne in mind that the term 
'^meat breeds," as used in this volume, refers chiefly 
to those breeds whose greatest usefulness is in the 
production of meat. While the quality of the 
flesh of these fowls may not exceed, or even equal, 
the flesh of some other breeds, yet on account of 
their large size they are especially prized for table 
use under certain conditions. As a good-sized 
roast of meat is preferred to a small one, so large 
fowls are preferred for certain methods of cooking. 
Certain it is that large fowls are usually served to 
better advantage than small ones. 

As a rule, the noted meat breeds are larger, 
more compact and ''blocky" than the Mediter- 
raneans. They are broader and deeper in body, 

(41) 



42 , Farm Poultry 

fuller in breast and have shorter necks and legs. 
While some of the intermediate, or general-purpose 
fowls, as they are sometimes called, are reared 
wholly for their flesh, they should not be classi- 
fied with the distinctively meat breeds. The latter 
fowls produce, under favorable conditions, a good 
number of eggs, which, together with their size, 
warrants placing them in the intermediate class, 
which may be called general-purpose breeds, for 
convenience of discussion. Whatever may be said 
of those fowls noted for meat production will apply 
only in part to the smaller general-purpose fowls, 
so far as they enter into competition for meat pro- 
duction. As a matter of fact, many of the so-called 
general-purpose fowls are reared extensively for 
meat production, but they are nevertheless of a 
different type from the large, heavy, phlegmatic 
breeds, whose greatest usefulness is in the produc- 
tion of large, plump bodies, most highly prized for 
table use. These meat breeds form a class by them- 
selves even when the fowls are considered from 
the standpoint of weight only. 

Disposition. — Without exception, all the noted 
meat breeds are slow and more or less sluggish 
in movement and are not easily frightened. They 
become very tame and gentle with careful treat- 
ment and do not show a dislike to handling, as 
do some of the smaller and more nervous breeds. 
They are not well calculated to seek their own 



Quiet Fowls 43 

living, even though a wide range be provided. 
They have Httle desire to roam far from home unless 
compelled to do so in search of food. Even then 
their slow and, in many cases, awkward move- 
ments totally unfit them for foraging for insects 
and other foods which nature provides, in com- 
petition with more active breeds. Preeminently, 
they are fowls which should be fed, rather than 
allowed to shift for themselves. As the more active, 
nervous Mediterraneans illustrate an ideal fowl for 
foraging, so the heavy, clumsy, phlegmatic meat 
breeds represent the opposite extreme, or that of 
gentleness and docility. 

Easily confined. — If only the heavy-bodied fowls 
are to be reared on farms where all fowls are to 
be kept within enclosures, comparatively low fences 
will suffice. When mature, fowls of the heaviest 
breeds rarely fly from the ground, and are satisfied 
with comparatively low perches. On account of 
their gentle dispositions they make most excellent 
"lawn fowls," and may be given liberty without 
fear of trespassing on the holdings of a near-by 
neighbor. In the minds of many, a few fowls on 
the back lawn during certain portions of the year 
add to the attractiveness of the surroundings and 
bring pleasure to the owner, who delights in the 
freedom of his birds. This is particularly true if 
he is assured that these birds, which, in a sense, 
have become pets, are quite certain not to annoy 



44 Farm Poultry 

either the members of his own household or his 
neighbors. There are probably no breeds of fowls 
so well suited to have the liberties of a small farm 
or lot as these slow-moving Asiatics. 

Laying qualities. — The laying qualities of these 
fowls are considerably below the average, and, as 
a rule, are not to be compared with those of the 
more active fowls which originated in the countries 
bordering on the Mediterranean. 

The useful qualities of animals reach the highest 
state of development when one quality is developed 
at the expense of others. Experience has shown 
that it has not been possible to develop in the same 
individual or breed two or more useful qualities to 
the highest stage of perfection. The two most 
highly prized useful quahties in our domesticated 
fowls are meat and egg production. When one is 
unusually well developed the other is lessened in 
value or importance, so that both are never developed 
to the greatest extent in one individual. Admirable 
illustrations are seen in the development of animals 
that are highly prized for the production of meat 
or of milk. In no instance has the best milker been 
most highly prized for meat production. A similar 
condition exists in the poultry world. While the 
breeding of fowls solely for egg production, or for 
meat production, has reached a high state of per- 
fection, yet these two qualities are not brought to 
the highest stage of perfection in one individual. 



Deficient as Egg Producers 45 

The development of either is largely held to be a 
matter of food and constitutional vigor, although 
some investigations tend to show some differences 
between egg production, a reproductive function, 
and other useful qualities that previously had not 
been given so careful consideration. This is dis- 
cussed more fully in the chapter on breeding. 

The relative importance of meat production and 
egg production in this country is continually becom- 
ing more widely separated as the price of food and 
labor advances. The importance of egg production 
is steadily advancing faster than that of meat pro- 
duction, just as the dairy interests of the country 
are becoming of far greater importance than the 
beef interests. 

This condition has a tendency to cause undue 
claims to be made for the meat breeds as to egg 
production. Those about to purchase fowls to be 
used as foundation stock for a flock should not be 
misled by any claims that breeders of meat breeds 
may make as to the profitable egg production of 
their fowls. 

While some breeds or varieties of large fowls, 
notably the Light Brahmas, are good winter layers 
while young, yet it is not to be inferred from any 
records these fowls may have made that they are 
equal to some of the Mediterranean breeds as 
economical egg-producing machines, when the entire 
life of the fowl is taken into consideration. The 



46 Farm Poultry 

modern poultryman regards his fowls much as a 
manufacturer regards his machine, and, in either 
case, the machine that will run at its fullest capacity 
for the longest period, other things being equal, 
will bring to the owner the most profit. While 
poultry-keepers may rightly consider their fowls 
as machines for the production of meat and eggs, 
yet it should be understood that it is not only 
desirable, but necessary, that the successful poul- 
tryman regard his flock from a standpoint other 
than a purely business one. It is necessary to the 
most successful poultry business that the poul- 
tryman love his fowls. Unless the live-stock owner 
has a love for the animals under his charge, and 
which is entirely distinct from the purpose for 
which he is breeding them, he is not likely to 
study their necessities and comforts. 

The distinctive meat breeds include all of the 
Asiatics, namely, the Brahmas, Cochins, and Lang- 
shans. Of the Brahmas, there are two varieties, 
the Light and the Dark. The Cochins are rep- 
resented by four varieties, — Buff, Partridge, White, 
and Black; while the Langshans have but two 
varieties, — Black and White. 

Late maturity. — It is well understood that in 
the development of animal life large size is not 
conducive to early maturity. Thus, heavy meat 
breeds require a much longer time in which to reach 
maturity than do the smaller, more active fowls. 



Late Maturing 47 

On this account the chicks are considered somewhat 
more dehcate. This is because they require a much 
longer time while passing the early and critical periods 
of their existence. Little chickens are more dehcate 
than mature fowls; consequently^ the longer the 
time required to pass through the juvenile period 
the more difficult they are to rear. On the other 
hand, the little chicks are well suited to withstand 
the hardships of early life if they are kept dry and 
clean. The young of some varieties are much better 
protected with down and feathers than others. 

BRAHMAS 

These are frequently called the leading breed 
of the Asiatics. Light Brahmas, particularly, have 
long been popular with many poultry-keepers 
throughout the country. The origin of these fowls 




Fig. 9. A flock of Light Brahmas. 



48 



Farm Poultry 



is somewhat obscure. Wright and others think 
that they probably have descended from the fowls 
of India, while Tegetmeier asserts that this breed 
was probably formed in America. 

A distinctive feature of the Brahmas is the 
comb; which is known as the pea-comb. It is unlike 




Fig. 10. Dark Brahma cock (one-eighth size). 

either the rose or the single comb. The pea-comb 
has been described as the union of three single 
combs, joined at the front, rear and base, the middle 
comb being somewhat larger than the other two. 
Each comb should have distinct serrations. 

The Brahmas are large fowls, — in fact, the 
largest variety known is the Light Brahma. The 



Characteristics of Brahmas 



49 



Light Brahma cock should weigh 12 and the hen 
93^2 pounds. The Dark Brahmas are a pound 
Ughter. The Brahmas have yellow skin and shanks, 
and the outersides of the shanks are feathered. 
Leg-feathering is undoubtedly a protection during 
the severe winter weather, but it is somewhat objec- 




FiG. 11. Dark Brahma hen (one-seventh size). 

tionable, as the majority of consumers prefer a 
clean-legged fowl. 

The young birds do not '^feather out" so rap- 
idly as the young of the Mediterraneans, and con- 
sequently are ill-looking while young on account 
of their partially naked appearance. Sometimes 



50 Farm Poultry 

this partial nakedness continues throughout a 
considerable period of their growth. Some farmers 
object to Brahmas on account of this slow feather- 
ing, but this characteristic cannot detract materially 
from their usefulness. 

When not injured by breeding for fancy points, 
as sometimes is done in the production of fowls 
for exhibition, the pullets make good winter layers. 
For egg production, however, they should not 
be kept longer than two years. If the pullets are 
early hatched and mature reasonably early, for 
Brahmas, they should not be kept longer than one 
complete season of usefulness if egg production is 
an important essential. 

The Dark Brahmas are not considered to be as 
good layers as the Light variety, and are quite 
as difficult to breed true to color. The Dark Brah- 
mas have somewhat delicate feather markings 
which are difficult to produce with that degree of 
excellence necessary for exhibition purposes. 

The Brahmas are good sitters, in fact sit too 
much for general-purpose fowls, and are considered 
too heavy to sit on eggs of light-weight fowls. 
All Asiatics lay buff-colored eggs. Some of them 
are much darker than others. The Brahmas are 
'^good growers" and make excellent table fowls. 
They are fairly hardy and gain rapidly in weight. 
The meat is of fair quality, but does not equal 
that of the Dorking or Game. The Dark Brahmas 



Cochins Described 51 

are not quite so popular as the Light, which is no 
doubt due to the superior egg production of the 
latter. Brahmas do well in small runs or yards. 
When liberally fed, the Brahmas have a tendency 
to become too fat for laying and for breeding pur- 
poses. Excessive fatness not only causes fewer 
eggs, but a larger proportion of infertile ones. 




Fig. 12. Buff Cochin cock (one-eighth size). 
COCHINS 

The Cochins were introduced into England from 
China about 1843, when the ports of China were 
opened to European traders. The cock is a pound 



52 Farm Poultry 

lighter than the Light Brahma; the hens have the 
same weight. They are distinctively table fowls. 
The hens are good sitters, easily handled, and are 
slow and awkward in movement. The young are 




Fig, 13. Buff Cochin hen (one-seventh size). 

fairly hardy after the chickens once get a good 
start. They grow fast and furnish a good quantity 
of meat, but not of the best quality. They are 
considered indifferent layers. These fowls are gentle 
and tame, very peaceable, seldom quarrel and stand 
confinement well. They do well where others would 
not thrive for lack of exercise. 

The Buff Cochins are as pure buff as any of 
the buff breeds. This variety is the most popular 



Langshans Described 53 

of the Cochins. The fowls have an abundance 
of fluffy feathers which enable them to withstand 
severe cold weather. Their shanks are well feathered 
on the outer side. The middle and outer toes are 
also feathered, while the inner toes are entirely 
naked. They have small, single, upright combs. They 
are much admired by those who delight in large, 
gentle, slow-moving fowls. 

LANGSHANS 

Langshans are natives of Northern China and 
were introduced into England more than a quarter 
of a century ago. They have not been bred to a 
great extent in America until the last few years. 
They endure severe weather well, and are said 
to be good winter layers. It is also said that the 
tendency to incubate is not so great as in the 
Cochins. The cock should weigh 9^/^ and the hen 
l}/2 pounds. The Langshans are the smallest and 
most active of the Asiatics, and more nearly approach 
the general-purpose fowl than do the other Orientals. 
They have white skin and dark shanks, while the 
others have yellow skin and yellow shanks. The 
quality of the flesh is considered excellent, being 
fine-grained for such large fowls. They are better 
foragers than the Cochins and Brahmas. They are 
somewhat longer-legged than the Brahmas and 
Cochins, and consequently appear taller in propor- 



54 



Farm Poultry 



tion to their size. Their leg feathering is less than 
that of the other Asiatics. 

Langshans are steadily gaining in popularity, 
although they will probably never become so popu- 
lar as the general-purpose breeds unless they undergo 
a marked modification. They are preferred by 
some because they are more active than either the 
Brahmas or Cochins. 




Fig. 14. Faverolle cock (one-eighth size). 



FAVEROLLE 



This is a class of cross-bred fowls, not being a 
distinct breed, but serving a useful purpose as 



Faverolles 55 

meat producers. It has supplanted the Houdan 
and other French breeds in some parts of France, 
where the production of good-sized young birds 
for the Paris market is the chief aim. 

The Faverolles were produced by crossing the 
following breeds: Cochin, Brahma, Dorking, and 




Fig. 15. Faverolle hen (one-sixth size). 

Houdan. They are bearded and sometimes have 
a crest, frequently have five toes, and show white 
skin and light-colored shanks. The shanks are 
usually feathered unless the Dorking blood pre- 
dominates, in which case they are frequently bare. 
For early rearing and quick-growing chickens that 
produce tender and juicy flesh, the Faverolle? 



56 Farm Poultry 

are highly prized where they are best known. It 
is undoubtedly true that the flesh of the mature 
birds is somewhat coarse and undesirable. While 
these fowls may become a well-established breed 
and may be highly prized for the fine quality of 
their meat, it is doubtful if they ever will become 
popular in America as farm fowls. 



CHAPTER IV 

GENERAL-PURPOSE FOWLS 

As the name indicates, the general-purpose 
breeds include such fowls as may profitably be 
kept on the farm for the production of both meat 
and eggs, particularly under the conditions that 
require natural incubation. They are adapted to 
common and general conditions. It should not 
be forgotten that the term ' ^general-purpose" is 
relative and is not intended to express exact con- 
ditions. It is impossible to make definite class- 
ifications of the various breeds of fowls, as some 
breeds in the hands of skiUed poultrymen may 
prove profitable, while in the hands of an unskilled 
person they would not compare favorably with many 
other breeds that really are less productive when 
under the care of those who supply the necessary 
conditions for profitable production. Fowls of all 
breeds and varieties lay eggs, and the flesh of 
all fowls furnishes good and wholesome food, yet 
not all breeds are equally desirable for these 
purposes. 

Farmers, from the fact that they are somewhat 
isolated, require fowls that are noted for utility 

(57) 



58 Farm Poultry 

along more than one line of production. They 
look not only for a fairly good egg production, but 
also for a body of considerable size that will fur- 
nish a good quantity of meat of first-class quality 
for table use. Both eggs and meat are of the high- 
est importance for the practical farmer, for upon 
his poultry he depends to a greater extent than 
he himself is aware. The quality of the meat, as 
well as its quantity, is to be considered. Not only 
does the farmer demand meat when the fowls are 
mature, but the meat of fowls of all ages after the 
young reach the broiler stage must be of good 
quality. It is vitally important, also, that the fowls 
produce the greatest quantity and best quality of 
meat from the food consumed; for some fowls eat 
much and produce relatively little. Good layers 
also are required, especially during the winter 
months. Steady winter layers are demanded by 
the farmer quite as much as by the poultryman 
whose business it is to produce eggs for the market. 
Most farmers do not expect to consume all the 
product of the poultry-yard at home. If eggs are 
produced in good numbers during the cold weather, 
a high price is usually realized for them. A greater 
price is realized from winter eggs than from those 
produced during the spring and summer months 
when fowls lay most abundantly. It is also desired 
that the farm hen should become '^broody,'' incubate 
and prove a good mother for her young. Many 



Characteristics of General-purpose Fowls 59 

farmers do not feel that they can afford to be bur- 
dened with the extra care and study which the 
successful operation of the modern incubator would 
incur. They therefore depend upon the natural 
instincts of the fowls to provide incubators and 
brooders. Some of the more noted characteristics 
of the general-purpose fowls are discussed in the 
following paragraphs. 

Size. — These fowls are usually of medium size; 
that is. they rarely represent either extreme, although 
the largest breed — the Light Brahmas — may, under 
exceptionally favorable conditions, prove to be 
fairly good farm fowls. The general-purpose fowls, 
as a rule, have blocky, compact bodies, which is 
one of the requisites for meat production. They 
are rarely long-legged. They are most economical 
feeders; that is, they make a good growth for the 
food consumed. 

Disposition. — Gentleness is one of the charac- 
teristics of these breeds.' The fowls are not easily 
frightened, and are more easily confined than the 
breeds which are noted for egg production alone. 
They rarely attempt to use their wings in order 
to escape from inclosures of medium height. While 
they may become wild and easily frightened by 
improper management, yet with proper care they 
become quite as docile and tame as is consistent 
with ease of management and profit. They occupy 
a medium position between the Mediterraneans 



60 - Farm Poultry 

and the Asiatics as regards size, egg production, 
and docility. 

Early maturity. — These fowls are hardy, grow 
quickly and pass through the delicate stages of 
early life rapidly. They closely resemble the most 
hardy of the noted egg breeds in this respect. They 
are considered to be hardy at all stages, which is an 
important point for farm poultry. The many cares 
of busy farm life during the growing seasons of the 
year sometimes prevent giving the fowls the close 
attention which the more delicate breeds require in 
order that they may be brought safely to a stronger 
stage of development. Hardiness at all stages of 
development is, therefore, an important character- 
istic of farm poultry. Early maturity produces 
early-laying pullets. The so-called general-purpose 
breeds mature early and frequently produce pullets 
that will lay at five months of age. Early-hatched 
pullets, as a rule, will lay at an earlier age than 
those hatched later in the season. The early-hatched 
fowls generally grow most rapidly and reach matu- 
rity in the shortest time. Early-hatched fowls are 
usually preferred for breeding as well as for utility. 

Good sitters and good brooders. — While these 
fowls are not so persistent sitters as the Asiatics, 
yet they may be depended upon for natural incu- 
bation, particularly if the hens are kept until they 
are two or three years old. They make excel- 
lent mothers, as they care for their young excel- 



Useful Qualities 61 

lently and have a great abundance of fluffy feath- 
ers, which enable them to do their brooding well. 
They are probably somewhat better sitters and 
brooders than the extremely heavy fowls. Fewer 
eggs are hkely to be broken by these careful birds 
than by the larger and more clumsy kind. 

Good foragers. — These fowls are good foragers, 
considering their size. While they are not inchned 
to roam so far as some of the Kghter and more 
active breeds, yet they are well calculated to seek 
their own hving when an opportunity is afforded 
them. The young fowls will roam a considerable 
distance for insects and green food, and in this 
respect they occupy a medium position between 
the active, nervous breeds and the heavy Asiatics, 
approaching more nearly the former than the latter. 

Endure cold weather well. — The compact body 
and medium-sized combs and wattles enable the 
general-pupose fowls to withstand the severe weather 
of the winters. While a frosted comb may occasion- 
ally result, yet they are not nearly so liable to 
injury by freezing as are the more noted egg breeds. 
They have a somewhat thicker coat of feathers and 
more fluff than the Mediterraneans. The thick 
coat of feathers gives them a much better protection 
than a thin one, for the reason that the air space 
inclosed by a thick coat is considerably greater 
than that inclosed by a thin one. While they do not 
equal the Asiatics in this respect, yet they are suffi- 



62 Farm Poultry 

ciently protected to withstand the rigors of the 
northern winters. 



PLYMOUTH ROCKS 

For half a century these fowls have been steadily 
gaining in favor until they now occupy the highest 
position as to popularity. Probably no other breed 
has ever been so widely distributed and so numer- 
ously bred under such varying conditions as the 
Plymouth Rocks. They seem to have remarkable 
powers of adapting themselves to the conditions 
under which they are placed. 

It has been said of them by an eminent poultry 
authority that '^ Where any fowl will thrive this 
breed will do well." The fact that these fowls are 
so numerously bred on the farms of this country, 
where usefulness is the important consideration, 
is perhaps the highest testimonial that any breed 
of fowls can have. 

There has been, and still continues, an effort 
on the part of poultry fanciers to create a large 
number of varieties. This breed, like many others, 
shows the result of this work. While the older va- 
rieties are not necessarily injured through the for- 
mation of new ones, yet one must lament the fact 
that so much effort has been bestowed on a useful 
breed to simply please the eye, without any marked 
improvement along the lines for which these fowls 



Plymouth Rocks 63 

are maintained. The fact that comparatively 
easy tasks are more hkely to be accomphshed than 
are very difficult ones may possibly explain why 
the easier task of creating a new variety has become 
more popular than the more difficult one of improv- 
ing the useful qualities of a well-established breed. 
The recognized varieties of this breed are the 
following : 

Barred Silver-penciled 

White Partridge 

Buff Columbian 

All varieties have the same weight — cock 9J^, 
hen 7J^, cockerel 8, and pullet 6 pounds. 

BAERED PLYMOUTH ROCKS 

This variety probably originated in Massa- 
chusetts about tte middle of the last century. 
It is said to have sprung from the cross of a Domi- 
nique cock and a Black Java hen. The Barred 
Plymouth Rocks combine largely the qualities of 
both these breeds. They more nearly approach 
the Java in size, but retain many of the good qual- 
ities of the Dominique. While they do not have 
the color of either parent, yet they more nearly 
approach that of the Dominique. These fowls 
approach the Asiatics in size, the Leghorns in egg 
production, and constitute one of the most useful 
varieties. They also produce flesh of an excellent 



64 



Farm Poultry 



quality. It is maintained by some breeders of Ply- 
mouth Rocks that the quality of the flesh approaches 
that of the Dorking. They are blocky fowls, have large, 
full, plump, well-proportioned bodies, yellow shanks 
and skin. The flesh is of good texture and flavor. 
They are early maturing, considering their size. 




Fig. 16. Barred Plymouth Rock cockerel. 

are good layers, hardy both as little chicks and 
mature fowls. They are excellent mothers, kind 
and persistent sitters. The laying capacity is con- 
siderably above the average of fowls. Authentic 
records are reported of more than two hundred and 
thirty eggs per year from single birds. The pullets 



Plymouth Rocks Popular 



65 



make excellent winter layers, but for greatest egg 
production in the wintertime fowls should not be 
kept longer ^than two years. They are easily kept 
in confinement and are adapted to nearly all cli- 
mates. Probably no breed better combines these 
two qualities — egg production and the yielding 
of a large amount of good meat for the table. This 




Fig. 17. Barred Plymouth Rock hen (one-seventh size). 

variety, more than any other, has won for this breed 
its remarkable popularity. 



WHITE PLYMOUTH ROCKS 



In a general way, what has been said of the 
Barred Plymouth Rocks will apply to all varieties 
of this breed, although the newer varieties are not 



66 Farm Poultry 

quite so well fixed in their distinguishing characters 
as the Barred. It is asserted that the White Ply- 
mouth Rocks originated as anoff-sh^ot from the 
Barred Plymouth Rocks early in the history of 
the latter.* The Plymouth Rock form predominates 
in all varieties, and the solid colors have the advan- 
tage of the Barred in mating, as often, with the 
Barred, the best formed fowl will be objectionable 
on account of some imperfection in color, so that 
it must be discarded from the breeding-pen if charac- 
teristic colors are desired. 

The White variety is preferred .by poultrymen 
who rear young fowls for market. White fowls 
present a better appearance when dressed than 
colored ones do, particularly if the fowls are not 
in the most perfect condition. Immature' fowls 
of all breeds and varieties have more or less unde- 
veloped feathers, the removal of which, in colored 
varieties, leaves a discoloration beneath the skin. 
On this account, young birds of a white variety 
that are dressed for the market present a better 
appearance than equally good birds of a colored 
variety. As long as attractive appearance is a desired 
quality in dressed fowls, white varieties will be 
preferred. 

BUFF PLYMOUTH ROCKS 

The Buff variety of this breed is of more recent 
origin than those already described. It, however, came 

*"Barred and White Plymouth Rocks," by Wallace. 



Plymouth Rock Varieties 



67 



at once into favor with a large number of poultry- 
men who may be regarded, to some extent at least, 
as poultry fanciers, and also with others who have 
a decided liking for fowls of this color. The advocates 




Fig. 18. Buff Plymouth Rock cockerel (one-seventh size). 

of this variety maintain that the useful qualities 
measure favorably with the older and better known 
varieties. 

OTHER VARIETIES 

These are of still more recent origin, and as yet 
have not been given an opportunity to prove their 



68 Farm Poultry 

value under the great variety of conditions as 
have those of the Barred variety that won for the 
Plymouth Rocks their remarkable reputation. 

Each of the varieties has medium-sized single 
combs. In size, the combs and wattles occupy 
a medium position between the Cochins and the 
Mediterraneans. The eggs of each variety are 
buff in color, but vary considerably in shade. 

WYANDOTTES 

The Wyandottes are not so old as the Plymouth 
Rocks. When first introduced, they came at once 
into popular favor, and are now crowding the Ply- 
mouth Rocks for supremacy as the most popular 
general-purpose fowl. They are purely of American 
Origin. They were recognized as a distinct breed 
by the American Poultry Association in 1883, and 
at that time were given a new name, ^hich they 
now bear. 

Previous to that time they were known and sold 
as American Sebrights, Excelsiors, Ambrights, etc. 
They are a little smaller than the Plymouth Rocks, 
the cock weighing 83^, hen 6)^, cockerel l}/2, pullet 
53^^ pounds. They have yellow skin and shanks, 
with the exception of the black variety, which has 
black shanks shading into yellow, and the bottom 
of the feet are yellow. As producers of broilers to 
weigh two pounds apiece they are highly esteemed. 



Wyandotte s 69 

The hens are excellent sitters and make good mothers. 
In this respect they closely resemble the Plymouth 
Rocks. The Wyandot tes have a neat and trim 
appearance, are good sized, produce excellent flesh, 
and have a gentle disposition. They are generally 
called handsome fowls. In appearance, they are 



♦ 

i 





Fig. 19. A pair of White Wyandottes, young (one-eighth size). 

somewhat neater than the Plymouth Rocks. In ful- 
filling the demands of the farmer for the econom- 
ical production of both eggs and meat the Wyan- 
dottes are not wanting. Joseph Wallace says, 
'Tt should not be claimed that the Wyandottes, 
in quality and quantity of breast meat, equal the 
Dorking, Houdan or Game." Neither do they 
equal the Leghorns or the Minorcas in egg produc- 



70 Farm Poultry 

tion, yet they are excellent general-purpose fowls. 
They are called good layers and bear confinement 
well. They are hardy, both as mature fowls and 
when young. They have a low rose comb, which 
makes them well suited to a cold country. They 
are well feathered and attractive in appearance. 

The object of the originators of this breed was 
to obtain a compact, blocky, clean-legged fowl 
of good size, one particularly deep in the breast, 
that should produce a good number of eggs. The 
results fully meet these various requirements. The 
flesh is of a superior quality, being tender and juicy. 
The proportion of bone to the total weight of dressed 
fowl is comparatively small. In general outline as 
compared to the Plymouth Rocks they are smoother 
and more compact, they have shorter backs and 
have deep round bodies. They are often spoken 
of as the fowl of curves. Their low and close-fitting 
comb that conforms pretty well to the outline of 
the skull adds even more to their smooth and rounded 
appearance. 

There are eight recognized varieties of this breed : 

Silver Buff Partridge 

Golden Black Silver-penciled 

White Columbian 

ORPINGTONS 

This breed is said to have originated in the 
hands of WilHam Cook, of Orpington, England; 



Orpingtons 71 

hence the name. They have come into popular favor 
both in England and America. They are said to 
be the most popular fowls in England. Since their 
introduction here many breeders have become very 
enthusiastic over them. It is significant that those 
who are loudest in their praise are those who 
have bred them longest and understand them 
best. The Orpingtons are particularly prized by 











m 






-4 ■ 


^ 


! 
I 


-i 


i'!l'' 


, • '■' ".,„, ^^^ 




lis 






tf 



Fig. 20. Buff Orpingtons. 

those who desire a white-skinned fowl for table 
use. This feature has, without doubt, aided mate- 
rially in making them popular in England, where 
the white skin is prized, as the yellow skin is prized 
in this country. There is, however, an increasing 
appreciation of white-skinned fowls in America. 
The idea that yellow color indicates greater richness 
is becoming less general, particularly with those 
who are most fastidious in their tastes. 



72 Farm Poultry 

There are ten or more varieties of this breed 
recognized in England but only three have been 
recognized by the American Poultry Association, — • 
the White, Buff, and Black, all solid colors. It is 
claimed that no one variety is superior to the others 
as to usefulness. Breeders claim that Orpingtons 
are profitable egg producers. The cock should 
weigh 10, and the hen 8 pounds. They are particu- 
larly prized for quantity and quality of their flesh. 

The White is perhaps the most popular of any of 
the varieties. They are easier to breed to feather, 
being pure white throughout. However, each va- 
riety has many ardent admirers. All varieties are, 
without doubt, most useful farm fowls. 

JAVA 

Javas are one of the valuable, useful breeds 
of this country. They are said to have originated 
in Missouri near the middle of the last century, 
about the time the Plymouth Rocks originated, per- 
haps a little earlier. It is asserted that they have 
been bred pure longer than any of the recently 
formed breeds. Javas are noted for their good size, 
being the same size as the Plymouth Rocks, and 
are quick maturing. They are of two varieties, 
the Black and the Mottled. It is said that, when 
cooked, the meat of the Black variety does not pre- 
sent the objectionable dark color of some other black 



Dominiques 73 

breeds. They are good layers, perfectly hardy, and 
are easily reared, endure confinement well, and are 
easily kept in inclosures. It is said that the fowls 
breed quite as true as any of the breeds of this class. 
They are good winter layers, and the chicks make 
good broilers at an early age. They are not raised 
so extensively as some other breeds of this class. 
They are becoming more popular, yet in this respect 
are still far behind the Plymouth Rocks and the 
Wyandottes. The Black variety has been the most 
popular. This variety is rich black throughout, 
mth a metallic luster. They have single combs, 
their shanks and toes are free from feathers but are 
nearly black in color. The Javas may be recom- 
mended as useful farm fowls. The cock should weigh 
9}/2 and the hen Tj.^ pounds. 

DOMINIQUE 

Dominiques are smaller than the Wyandottes, 
and are compact and hardy. This is one of the 
oldest American breeds. The origin is obscure. 
The general color is a grayish white, with yellow 
shanks, somewhat like the Plymouth Rocks, yet 
the fowls are lighter in color. For a time they were 
unpopular, but are now receiving attention and are 
apparently coming into favor. They endure con- 
finement well. It is said of them that they change 
little by in-and-in-breeding. It is also asserted 



74 Farm Poultry 

that they suffer comparatively little from unclean- 
liness. They have rose-combs, and endure cold 
weather well. They are excellent table fowls, good 
mothers, good foragers, mature early, and are a 
most useful farm breed. There is but one recog- 
nized variety, the Rose-comb. The cock should 
weigh 7, and the hen 5 pounds 

DORKING 

The Dorking is preeminently an English breed. 
The fowls approach the ideal for general purposes. 




Fig. 21. Colored Dorking hen, English (one-eighth size). 

They are fairly hardy if kept dry, although some- 
what delicate if subjected to dampness, particu- 
larly in cold weather. This is, without doubt, one 



Dorkings 



75 



of the oldest of domesticated breeds. It is said 
by some authorities that the fowls were taken to 
England by the Romans. They are low, heavy- 
bodied fowls, with single combs. A distinguishing 




Fig. 22. Flock of Dorkings, Acle, England. 

mark of the Dorking is the fifth toe. They are good 
layers, persistent and careful sitters and good 
mothers. They are excellent farm fowls, especially 
prized for the table. Their flesh is hght-colored 



76 Farm Poultry 

and of fine texture. Some even hold that the flesh 
of the Dorking is superior to that of the Game. 
American breeders prize the Dorkings highly for 
quality of flesh, and also for the small proportion 
of bone. They are especially noted for a broad, 
deep breast, and the breast meat is distinctly fine in 
quality. They fatten easily, and stand confinement 
fairly well, although a wide range in dry weather suits 
them best. It is said that the hens remain longer 
with the chickens than do the hens of most breeds. 

The fifth toe is objected to by some breeders. 
It is at least a superfluous organ so far as useful- 
ness is concerned. It is, however, one of the promi- 
nent characteristics of the Dorking. Some Eng- 
lish writers, notably Wright, assert that those 
varieties of fowls which have five toes are more 
afflicted with bruised feet — ^'Bumblefoot" — than 
are other varieties. 

HOUDAN 

The Houdan is without doubt the most popular 
of French varieties that are bred in the United 
States. The other French breeds are the Creve- 
coeur, and the La Fleche. The Houdans rank 
among the useful fowls and are noted for the pro- 
duction of a goodly number of eggs, and, at the 
same time, furnish a moderate quantity of fine 
flesh. The cock should weigh 7}4. and the hen 6^^ 
pounds. Wright says of them: ^'Better table fowls 



Cornish Games 77 

are none, the laying powers are great, the chickens 
fledge and grow faster than almost any breed, and 
the eggs are invariably prolific." 

The Houdans are crested, bearded, and have 
the characteristic fifth toe. Notwithstanding these 
objectionable characteristics, they are reared to 
some extent for their useful qualities, but are not 
nearly so popular as the Plymouth Rocks and 
Wyandottes. 




Fig. 23. Dark Cornish Game cock (one-ninth size). 
CORNISH GAME 

These are hardy and most excellent table fowls. 
They are considered profitable general-purpose fowls; 



78 Farm Poultry 

are fairly good layers, mature rapidly and are 
unexcelled for quality of flesh. The hens are good 
sitters and excellent mothers. All Games are close- 
feathered and muscular, which gives them a firm 
and compact feehng to the touch. They weigh 




Fig. 24. Dark Cornish Game hen (one-sixth size). 

very heavily for their apparent size. The thighs 
of games are well developed and appear prominent. 
The Cornish Games are represented by three 
varieties, the Dark, White, and White-laced Red. 
The Dark and the White are best known and are 
most highly prized as useful fowls. They should 
weigh, cock 9 and the hen 7 pounds. The White- 



Rhode Island Reds 79 

laced Red is a pound lighter. For general farm use 
they are not so desirable as most of the other breeds 
discussed in this class. 

They are considerably more pugnacious than 
the other breeds mentioned in this chapter and 
in certain localities are highly prized on this account. 
It is said that they suffer less from attacks of hawks 
than most other breeds. 

The Games of this class are sometimes used to 
cross on other fowls for the purpose of infusing 
vigor and of improving the quality of the flesh. 

EHODE ISLAND REDS 

These fowls are of American origin and are 
generally recognized as a new breed, although 
they have been bred in Rhode Island for many 
years. They are there bred numerously and are 
recognized as practical, useful fowls that are well 
adapted to the conditions under which farm fowls 
are usually kept. The American Poultry Associ- 
ation recognizes two varieties, the Single- and 
the Rose-comb. The cock weighs 83^2 and the hen 
63/^ pounds, the same weight as the Wyandottes. 

This breed has undoubtedly been developed by 
men who thoroughly appreciate utility, and they 
claim for these fowls all the essentials of a general- 
purpose fovvl. Some remarkable egg records have 
been made, yet it has not been shown that they 



80 



Farm Poultry 



have the remarkable powers of adaptabihty accred- 
ited the Plymouth Rocks. 

Breeders assert that they mature earlier than 
the Plymouth Rocks and in a general way occupy 
a position between these fowls and the Leghorns. 
It is claimed that they yield from the live weight a 
large proportion of dressed meat. The color of 
these fowls is designated as red and should be 
rich and brilliant; a little black is desired in some 
places, notably the tail. A lustrous red, which is 
quite distinct from the buff of other breeds, is 
characteristic of these fowls. Where they are well 
known they are highly prized as farm fowls. 




Fig. 25. Rhode Island Reds. 



CHAPTER V 

FANCY BREEDS 

While the breeds discussed in this arbitrary 
class are more or less useful, yet they are less adapt- 
able as farm fowls than those mentioned as egg or 
general-purpose breeds. Fowls of these breeds will 
undoubtedly lay a good number of eggs under 
favorable circumstances, and will produce flesh that 
is excellent for food, yet they are all less important 
for the furnishing of the useful products than are the 
varieties mentioned in previous chapters. This 
class of fancy breeds includes great variety as to 
size, form and color. Some of the breeds, in the 
hands of skilful poultrymen, would prove quite 
satisfactory as general-purpose fowls, yet, in the 
hands of the farmer, under ordinary farm conditions, 
they are of minor value. 

Nearly all kinds of fowls may be greatly improved 
by skilful breeding and management, and undoubt- 
edly these so-called fancy breeds could be improved 
as to useful qualities if given food and management 
conducive to that end. If one desires to attempt 
improvement for useful purposes it will be best to 
select fowls of one of the more useful breeds, as the 

F (81) 



82 Farm Poultry 

stock on which to work. There are so many useful 
breeds, that, beyond doubt, are susceptible of still 
further improvement that it would seem injudicious 
to start with some of the least useful. The same 
skill and care transferred to other breeds will give 
much greater returns in useful products than can be 
secured from these breeds whose energies have 
been expended in developing a variety of charac- 
teristics that are highly prized for exhibition 
purposes but have little value toward the pro- 
duction of eggs and meat. 

POLISH 

It is generally conceded that the name Polish, 
or Poland, has no connection with the country of 
that name. Charles Darwin says that probably the 
name was given on account of their elevated crest 
or poll just back of the nostrils on the top of the 
head, where there is an elevation in the bony struc- 
ture. These fowls have been bred for many years. 
It is said that they have a known history extending 
as far back as the sixteenth century. They were 
introduced into England about 1835. They are gen- 
erally considered handsome fowls, but are not noted 
for hardiness. They certainly cannot hold their own 
in a promiscuous flock. When bred in small flocks 
and given extra care they are said to pay very well. 
They are only fair layers of small white eggs. They 



Polish Fowls 83 

cannot withstand wet .weather well, and require 
extra care in time of snow or rain. 

The very large crests, which obstruct their sight 
to some extent, make them a somewhat easy prey to 
hawks in locahties where these enemies are numerous. 
In stormy weather the crests are liable to become wet 
and to cause inconvenience to the fowls, as well as to 
make them more liable to take cold. On account of 
their deHcacy, small size, and moderate egg pro- 
duction, they are designated a fancy breed. 

They endure confinement quite well if kept in dry 
and clean houses and yards. Their flesh is esteemed 
for its fine quality. If one desires a few handsome 
fowls, and is willing to give them extra care, they 
will probably prove satisfactory, but they are not 
practical for the poultry-keeper who desires to 
reaUze the largest profit from the production of eggs 
or meat. 

Both sexes have large and handsome crests. The 
comb of Polish fowls is peculiar in form and differs 
materially from the combs of the breeds previously 
described. It is V-shaped or branched in form, and 
is often nearly, or quite, hidden by the crest. 

The American Poultry Association recognizes 
eight varieties of Polish fowls, namely : 

Bearded Golden Non-bearded Golden 

Bearded Silver Non-bearded Silver 

Bearded White Non-bearded White 

Buff-laced White-crested Black 



84 Farm Poultry 

The shanks of all varieties are of a slate or bluish 
color and the skin is white. Probably the Silver, 
Golden, and White-crested Black are the most 
popular varieties. 

GAME 

The varieties of Games are especially noted for 
the production of flesh of fine quahty. Some varieties 
are sometimes recommended as farm fowls, but on 
account of their pugnacious disposition and their 
deficiency in egg production it is extremely doubtful 
whether they will prove as useful as the breeds dis- 
cussed under the head of general-purpose fowls 
(Chapter IV). 

They are among the most popular of exhibition 
or fancy fowls. The classes of these fowls are usually 
well filled at the large poultry shows and fairs. They 
are called good sitters and good mothers, traits which, 
in general, are common to all Games. There are 
eight recognized varieties of the Exhibition Games, 
and of these the Black-breasted Red and the Brown- 
Red are probably the most popular. 

SILKY 

The Silkies are not bred to any extent in this 
country, although in England they are in consider- 
able favor. Their great peculiarity is that their 
feathers are not webbed, and when in good condition 



Silkies, Sultans and Frizzles 85 

present a fluffy, loose appearance. Standing well 
out from the body in all directions, the plumage 
causes them to appear much heavier than they 
really are. They are compactly built birds, and are 
reared chiefly for their ' odd appearance, and for 
hatching the eggs of other breeds. They are said 
to make good mothers for tender little chickens on 
account of their light weight and soft, downy feathers. 
They have irregular rose combs of a dark color. The 
comb and face present a dark, purplish appearance, 
in marked contrast to other varieties of fowls. 

SULTAN 

Sultans were taken into England from Turkey 
about 1850. They were not brought to America 
until many years later. On account of their crest 
they somewhat resemble the Polish, particularly the 
Bearded Polish. Their shanks and toes are heavily 
feathered. They are reared chiefly for their peculiar 
appearance. No particular claim is made as to use- 
fulness. They thrive well in small inclosures, and are 
gentle and readily become pets. 

FRIZZLE 

Frizzles are peculiar fowls, and are reared wholly 
for their unique appearance, their feathers curving 
upward and backward at the ends. The curve is 



86 Farm Poultry 

most pronounced in the hackle feathers and feathers 
of the back. Any color is recognized. Single combs 
are preferred. The chief requisite of Frizzles is that 
the feathers turn upward and toward the head. On 
account of this peculiarity of the feathers, they 
do not well withstand unfavorable weather. They 
should not be classed among the most useful breeds. 
They are not bred extensively. Without doubt 
they might be made more useful than they now are 
should skilful breeders give them some attention. 
However, the fact that they are not prepared to 
withstand the hardships that more useful breeds 
endure will tend to prevent them from becoming 
other than fancy fowls. 

BANTAM 

The Bantams are purely fancy or ornamental 
breeds. There are many varieties. While some 
breeders maintain that they can be profitably kept 
for eggs and for the table, yet on account of their 
diminutive size they cannot compete with the larger 
breeds. As ponies represent the children's horse 
and are in a way ornamental, so do the Bantams 
occupy a similar position among fowls. They are 
often reared as children's pets and undoubtedly 
afford a great deal of pleasure for both young and 
old. Among the most common and popular varieties 
of Bantams may be mentioned the Black, White, 



Bantams 87 

Buff, and Partridge Cochin; Dark and Light 
Brahma; Golden and Silver Sebright; Bearded 
White and Buff-faced PoHsh; Black-tailed, White 
and Black Japanese, and many varieties of Games. 
Probably the Golden and the Silver Sebright and 
the Buff Cochin are quite as popular as any. 

For exhibition purposes the plumage and form 
of these miniature representatives correspond closely 
to the varieties of larger fowls. Small size is preferred. 
There seems to be a marked tendency on the part 
of some varieties of Bantams to revert to the larger 
fowls from which they were derived. 



CHAPTER VI 

BUILDINGS FOB FOWLS: LOCATION PLANS AND 
CONSTRUCTION 

The convenience of location both as to the 
situation and arrangement of buildings is a most 
potent factor bearing on the financial success of 
the business. Poultrymen who aim to make a com- 
mercial enterprise of poultry-keeping consider 
proximity to market and shipping facilities before 
taking up the many minor details. 

The larger questions that affect the whole enter- 
prise should receive attention first, as a serious 
mistake in locating may turn into failure what 
otherwise would have been a success. 

The location of poultry houses is often thought 
to be of minor importance when compared with 
the location of other farm buildings. This may be 
true when but few fowls are to be kept for the sole 
purpose of supplying the home table, but the profit 
derived from keeping these few fowls is frequently 
very much less than it would be if the same care 
and thought were given them that is devoted to 
other farm stock. The greatest success requires 
thought and judgment in all operations. 

(88) 



Thorough Drainage Necessary 89 

LOCATION OF BUILDINGS 

In selecting a site for poultry houses and yards, 
three important points should be constantly borne 
in mind: (1) health of the fowls, (2) convenience 
of the attendant, and (3) liability to vermin and 
other poultry enemies. 

Health of the fowls. — As cleanliness and freedom 
from moisture are two highly essential conditions 
of successful poultry-keeping, the natural sur- 
roundings which strongly influence them should 
receive first consideration. A dry, porous soil not 
only insures a suitable yard or run, whenever the 
weather is favorable for the fowls to take out-of- 
door exercise, but also controls to some extent the 
amount of moisture in the buildings. If the highest 
degree of success is to be attained, cleanliness and 
freedom from moisture must be secured. Partial 
success or entire failure is undoubtedly more fre- 
quently due to filthy houses and yards, together 
with dampness, than to any other causes. Particu- 
larly is this true with those whose chief interests 
lie in other directions, and who, consequently, 
more or less neglect their smaller poultry interests 
during certain portions of the year. If it is desired 
to keep poultry on heavy or wet soils, the land 
should be thoroughly under drained. The removal 
of the surplus water from the yards or runs very 
much lessens the labor of keeping them clean, par- 



90 Farm Poultry 

ticularly during the growing season. During the 
summer months a yard or run of loose sand or 
gravelly soil will require comparatively little labor 
to keep it clean, while a similar one on a heavy 
and impervious clay will demand continual atten- 
tion, and even this will not always suffice to keep 
the yards in a satisfactory condition. A heavy soil 
not only retains nearly all of the droppings on the 
surface, but by retarding the percolation in times 
of frequent rains soon gives a coating of filth. This 
is particularly true of those parts of the yard most 
frequented by the fowls. 

A slightly raised elevation is to be preferred, 
particularly if the ground slopes gently on all sides 
from the building. This will insure good surface 
drainage in times of heavy showers and whenever 
the ground is frozen. While a somewhat light or 
porous soil that is naturally well underdrained 
is to be preferred, it should not be inferred that 
success may not be attained on somewhat heavier 
soils if they are thoroughly underdrained. Any 
good potato soil that is naturally well drained will 
not be objectionable on account of excessive moisture. 

Another important consideration is the admis- 
sion to the houses and yards of abundant sunshine. 
Fowls, like other classes of live stock, do not thrive 
so well when deprived of sunshine. This is particu- 
larly true of laying fowls during the cold winter 
months. The houses, yards or runs should be so 



Light and Sunshine Desirable 



91 



planned, if possible, as to give them a southern or 
southeastern exposure (Figs. 26, 27). Many build- 
ings for domesticated animals are so constructed 
that they do not admit sufficient light and air for 
the best health of the occupants. It has been found 
by experience that animals have a somewhat whiter 




Fig. 26, A poultry house — Massachusetts Agricultural College. 

skin and present a somewhat more dehcate appear- 
ance when deprived of direct sunUght than when 
they are permitted to bask in the sunshine at will. 
This is frequently noticed in dairy cows, in which 
a yellow skin is so highly prized. 

Poultrymeii turn to good advantage all the 
sunshine they can secure in the winter time in 
order to maintain a high standard of vigor and to 



92 



Farm Poultry 



stii^iulate egg production. It is an advantage to 
have the yard on the south side of the house, in 
order that the fowls may have the benefit of the 
first dry ground in the early spring. It frequently 
occurs in localities where snow is more or less abun- 
dant that the ground on the south side of the build- 
ing will be dry many days before that on the north 







NESTS UNDER BOARDS 
PtRCHES 



Fig. 27. Ground plan of poultry house — Massachusetts Agricultural College. 

side is entirely free from frost and dampness. The 
relative location of the house and yard is, therefore, 
of sufficient importance to demand one's best thought 
and care in planning. 

Convenience. — The poultry business, if prop- 
erly conducted, necessitates close attention to 
many details, each one, perhaps, somewhat insig- 
nificant in itself, yet of so much importance 



Convenience Important 93 

when considered in the aggregate that success or 
failure may. depend on its performance or neglect. 
In a general way, the labor is not considered heavy 
or burdensome, but constant vigilance and atten- 
tion are necessary. The mere fact that there are 
many small details requiring attention demands 
that convenient houses and yards be built, since 
a little inconvenience each day, or perhaps several 
times a day, will, in time, create an unnecessary 
expense of considerable magnitude. Economy of 
labor requires convenience of appliances, and 
nowhere is this better illustrated than in the poul- 
try business. It should also be borne in mind that 
whenever labor may be performed conveniently 
it is less likely to be neglected than when it is per- 
formed with difficulty. While one should not enter 
into the poultry business with the thought of neglect- 
ing any of its details, or to plan for any but thorough 
work, yet, knowing the shortcomings of human 
operations and tendencies, one will fail to make the 
most of his opportunities if he does not consider 
the inclinations of those who are expected to per- 
form the work. To do the work thoroughly will 
require a little attention several times a day. The 
fowls must be fed and watered, houses must be kept 
clean and other attentions given. In nearly all 
kinds of agricultural work the labor account is one 
of the greatest items of expense in conducting the 
business. 



94 



Farm Poultry 



9 

\^2 Rods- 



-n 





33- 



■fa-x-fQ-Hoase. 



U 



N 



■-( 



i2x 40 Hous 



~v. 



Fig. 28. A good plan for poultry houses and yards. Each house will accom- 
modate from 80 to 100 fowls. The yards are planted with fruit trees. 

A convenient arrangement of houses is illustrated 
in Fig. 28. The attendant may go from one house 
to another, passing through each pen without going 
through yards, which would necessitate opening 
and closing gates. It should be observed that each 
house is provided with two doors, in order that 
the poultryman may enter one and pass out at the 
other in less time than would be required if but 



Guard against Enemies 95 

one door were provided. This arrangement, how- 
ever, may not be found to be apphcable on many 
farms, particularly where but one small house 
is needed. 

Vermin, etc. — Rats and mice often become seri- 
ous pests in poultry houses, particularly if grain 
is kept in these buildings. For the same reason, it 
is generally best to locate the poultry houses some 
distance from other farm buildings, particularly 
from those in which grain is stored. Every farmer 
well knows how difficult it is to store grain for any 
considerable length of time and keep it entirely 
free from these pests. While convenience of access 
is of prime importance, yet often it is best to make a 
slight sacrifice of labor in order to secure the great- 
est freedom from rats and mice. Isolated build- 
ings will probably give the greatest satisfaction in 
the end. Mice will probably not be troublesome 
in poultry houses unless grain is stored in these 
buildings, but rats are likely to give more or less 
trouble, particularly in brooder houses and in pens 
or yards frequented by young chickens. 

In some locafities, crows, hawks, skunks and other 
poultry enemies give some trouble, and one must 
plan to meet these annoyances according to his 
best judgment. It may be necessary in some cases 
to cover entirely small yards in which young chick- 
ens are kept, with netting, in order to protect them 
properly from hawks and crows. A covered run for 



96 Farm Poultry 

little chickens is described in the chapter on feeding. 
Skunks may be excluded by proper fencing. 
Wherever vermin are numerous enough to give seri- 
ous annoyance, all possible ingenuity should be exer- 
cised to exclude them before resorting to destruc- 
tion by poison. While poison may sometimes be 
safely used, the danger of poisoning the fowls and 
other domestic animals is so great that one is not 
warranted in using it except as a last resort. 

CONSTRUCTION OF HOUSES 

In designing poultry houses, the form is neces- 
sarily one of the first points to be determined. 
While the design is under consideration, the essen- 
tials of a farm poultry house should be continually 
kept in mind. The chief essentials may be enu- 
merated as warmth, dryness, light and cheapness. 
In order to assure proper lighting, it is often found 
necessary to deviate somewhat from the form that 
would give the greatest warmth for the least cost. 
In all poultry houses in which fowls are confined 
during the cold winter months, some provision 
should be made to admit sunlight on the floor, where 
the fowls may congregate. In order to accomplish 
this to the best advantage, it is necessary to have a 
considerable frontage toward the south or southeast. 
During December, January and February it is 
most difficult, yet most essential, to have the direct 



Forms of Housed 



97 



sunlight. Square or octagon houses inclose the 
most space for the money expended, and also give 
opportunity for warm houses which may be con- 




FlG. 29. A double house — Pennsylvania State College 




I I I I I i~T-r 



C] 



1 



NCSTS 

SHtLLS L 

1" 



mJ 



Fig. 30. Ground plan of double house — Pennsylvania State College. 

structed cheaply, but in order to secure sunlight 
it is necessary to build the house considerably longer 
than wide. For economy, it is also desirable to build 
a house longer than is necessary for one pen or 
flock of fowls. A long and comparatively narrow 



98 



Farm, Poultry 



house, with Hght partitions constructed largely of 
netting, may be erected for considerably less expense 
than two or more separate houses having the same 
capacity. That is, it is much cheaper to construct 
a partition across a narrow poultry house than to 
construct two end walls. Then, too, adjoining 
poultry pens, connected by an easy swinging door, 




Fig. 31. Poultry houses — "West Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. 

are more convenient for the attendant than two 
separate houses. The arrangement of having two 
or more pens in one building is of the utmost im- 
portance where warm houses must be provided to 
guard against frosted combs and wattles. (See 
Figs. 29 and 30.) 

In constructing poultry houses, the material 



Selection of Material 



99 



to be used and the manner of building will depend 
largely upon the material at hand. In one locality 
certain materials may be comparatively cheap, while 
in other locahties the same articles may be relatively 
more expensive than other material equally suitable 
for the purpose. In selecting material, it should 
be borne in mind that the building is to provide a 




Fig, 32. Poultry houses and yards — Massachusetts Agricultural College. 

warm, dry, well-ventilated, well-lighted home for 
the fowls. If these requirements are satisfactorily 
comphed with, it will be necessary to provide roof 
and side walls that are impervious to moisture and 
relatively poor conductors of heat. Suitable arrange- 
ments for ventilating and lighting the building must 
be provided, and some provision should be made 



100 Farm Poultry 

to exclude the moisture from beneath, particularly 
if the soil is damp. 

Size of building, — The size of the building 
required will depend largely upon the number of 
fowls to be kept. While fowls of some breeds re- 
quire more room than the same number of indi- 
viduals of other breeds, yet the number is of more 
importance than the breed in determining the size 
of the building. The noted egg breeds are much 
more active than the heavier, slow-moving breeds, 
and therefore require quite as much room, although 
in weight they are far inferior. 

The climate will determine to a considerable 
extent the size of the buildings. If the climate 
is so mild that it is not necessary to keep the fowls 
confined within doors much of the time, smaller 
houses will suffice than in colder latitudes where 
the fowls are kept in the house for weeks at a time. 
In the latitude of New York City and farther north, 
where fowls are expected to be kept within doors a 
considerable portion of the year, five square feet of 
floor space per fowl will suffice for most breeds, and 
it will be none too much for best results. This may 
be taken as a general rule when the house is to be 
kept in good condition as regards cleanliness and 
ventilation. If the houses are to be more or less 
neglected, considerably more space should be 
provided. 

It is somewhat more difficult to give a good 



102 Farm Poultry 

working rule as regards air-space or cubical con- 
tents of the building. Under good average con- 
ditions, six or eight cubic feet per pound of live weight 
will perhaps be quite satisfactory. The amount of 
air-space, of course, will depend upon the ventila- 
tion, and also upon the sources of contamina- 
tion, aside from the fowls themselves. If manure 
is allowed to accumulate and the litter becomes 
damp, the air will become impure. Other things 
being equal, it will become impure sooner in small 
houses than in large ones. The above rule as regards 
air-space has given good satisfaction under favor- 
able conditions, and may be used in the absence of 
more definite information derived from actual 
experience. 

Foundation. — When permanent houses are to 
be built, it is undoubtedly most economical, in 
the long run, to erect them on foundations made 
of brick, stone or concrete. Such foundations 
should extend into the ground below the frost line, 
should be vermin-proof, and so constructed as to 
exclude drafts of air. Some provision should be 
made to give thorough ventilation during the warm 
seasons of the year, if the floor and its supports 
are to be constructed of wood. 

It is not safe to inclose wooden floor supports 
with solid walls of masonry on account of the liabil- 
ity of ^'dry rot" to destroy the supports and even 
to ruin the floor. A free ventilation should be pro- 



Foundations for Houses 103 

vided by means of openings in the foundation walls 
of all buildings when the floors are placed within 
a few feet of the ground. 

When wooden floors are constructed near the 
ground, it is essential to arrange the foundation 
walls so that rats cannot gain access underne^fth 
the floor. This may be readily accomplished by 
covering windows or openings in the walls with 
fine-meshed wire screens. Close-fitting bhnds may 
be used to close the windows and prevent draft 
underneath the house during the colder part of 
the year. If suitable stones are at hand for the 
construction of foundation walls, they undoubtedly 
may be used to good advantage. When neither 
brick nor stone is readily available, the founda- 
tion walls may be made of grout or concrete, pro- 
vided small stone or gravel can be readily obtained. 
On many farms small field-stones, which prove a 
hindrance to cultivation, may be used to good 
advantage. 

Walls of this description may be constructed 
without the aid of skilled labor and at a very moder- 
ate expense. In order to construct such walls satis- 
factorily, it is necessary to dig narrow trenches 
below the frost line. A sitnple and effective manner 
of proceeding is as follows: Drive rows of stakes 
into the ground, one row on each side of the trench, 
and nail boards on the inside of the stakes. The 
boards are used to hold the concrete in place until 



104 



Farm Poultry 



the cement hardens. Old, rough or uneven boards 
may be used, except for the top ones, which should 
have the upper edges straight. The upper boards 
should be placed level, as they will determine the 
top of the wall. The stakes which hold the boards 
should be firm enough to withstand the pressure 




Fig 34 Method of constructing a concrete wall. 

of the stones and cement without yielding very 
much. If the ground is so hard that stakes cannot 
be driven readily, tall stakes may be used and 
supported by fastening the tops together as shown 
in Fig. 34. Place a few layers of stone in the bottom 
of the trench, then put on some thin cement, and 
pound down by means of a light pounder. This 
operation should be repeated until the desired 



Construction of Concrete Walls 105 

height is reached. The top may be smoothed off 
with a ditching spade or trowel, using the top board 
as a guide. 

The wall should be left until the cement is hard, 
when the building may be placed upon it. The 
boards at the side may be removed at any time 
after the cement becomes hard. If old boards 
have been used at the bottom, it will not pay to 
remove them. A concrete wall of this kind may be 
constructed of cheap material and with ordinary 
farm labor. 

Side walls. — The side walls of poultry houses 
are usually built of wood, which is a compara- 
tively cheap material and is a poor conductor of 
heat. The side walls are constructed in various 
ways. For convenience of discussion the various 
kinds of walls may be placed under two heads: 
solid walls and hollow walls. In cold countries 
the hollow walls, or those with a dead air-space, 
are to be preferred, because of their greater warmth 
and freedom from moisture. In moderate or warm 
chmates solid walls will undoubtedly answer every 
purpose. 

For latitudes south of New York, solid walls, 
constructed of one or two thicknesses of inch boards, 
will prove quite satisfactory, particularly in the 
hands of the skilled poultryman. The amateur 
will undoubtedly prefer the hollow walls, as imper- 
fect appliances and buildings are greater hind- 



106 



Farm Poultry 



-Tar PajDsr 



ranees to him than they would be to the skilled 

and experienced man. Buildings with hollow side 

walls are cooler in summer, 

warmer in winter, and are 

not so hkely to be covered 

with frost in severe weather 

as sohd walls, particularly 

if the solid wall consists of 

but one or two thicknesses 

of boards. If the side walls 

and roof become more or less 

frosted in severe weather, 

dampness results whenever 

the temperature moderates 

sufficiently to melt the frost. 

A cheap and efficient wall 

for the sides and ends of 
the building may be con- 
structed of two thicknesses 
of rough inch lumber. Both 
thicknesses of this siding 
should be 
putonver-B,,,^„g,,„^ 
tically,with 

a good quahty of tarred build- 
ing-paper between. When walls 
of this nature are constructed, - ■ > 

it is best to nail on the inner siding first. On the out- 
side of these boards put a coat of the tarred paper in 




Fig. 35. 
Method of building a 
poultry house with 
solid side walls, ce- 
ment floor, and a roof 
that is impervious to 
wind. 




Construction of Side Walls 107 

such a manner that the whole surface is thoroughly 
covered, providing for a liberal lap wherever the 
edges meet. The object of this tarred building- 
paper is to prevent drafts of air from penetrating 
the side walls. (See Fig. 35.) The boards of the 
outside covering should be put over the building- 
paper in such a way that they will break joints 
with the inner boarding. If boards of a uniform 
width can be selected for this purpose, the ease of 
breaking joints will be greatly increased. A wall 
of this thickness of inch boards, with building 
paper, constructed as previously described, will 
prove satisfactory under ordinary conditions. It 
should be remembered, however, that these walls 
will be covered somewhat with frost in severe 
weather, particularly if the houses are well fiUed 
with fowls. 

A hollow wall may be constructed at about the 
same expense as the solid wall just described. One 
method of constructing a cheap and efficient poul- 
try house having hollow side walls is shown in 
Fig. 36. The sill may be of 2 x 8 or 2 x 6 scantling, 
laid flat on the foundation wall. A 2 x 2 scantling 
or strip is nailed on top of the sill, at its outer edge. 
This gives the width of the space or hollow in the 
side walls. The plate may be constructed of a 2 x 3 
or 2 X 4 scantling, placed edgewise. The boards 
which constitute the side walls are nailed to the 
sides of the plate and to the sides of the strip which 



108 



Farm Poultry 



was nailed to the top of the sill. Rough lumber may 
be used for the side walls, if strict economy is desired. 
The inner boarding should be nailed on first and 
covered on the outside with tarred building-paper. 
This paper will be within the wall when it is com- 




FiG. 36. 

Method of constructing a poultry 
house with a hollow side wall 
and a dead air-space between 
ceiling and roof. 



^fr-\"-"-'r~,S 



^ 



-ax4- 



ra 



pleted. It is preferable to fasten the paper in place 
by means of thin strips, laths, pieces of thin boards, 
etc., rather than to depend wholly on the heads of 
tacks or nails. The outside boarding may now be 
put on, and the cracks between the boards covered 
with inexpensive battens, if they are secured with 
small nails at frequent intervals. If cheapness is of 



Economy of Roof Construction 109 

considerable importance, the ordinary building laths 
may be used, and will answer the purpose admirably, 
although somewhat heavier battens will be more 
durable. A mistake is sometimes made in selecting 
heavy |)attens which will not draw down by nailing 
as well as lighter ones. The battens on the outside 
boarding and the tarred building paper on the 
inside boarding make two coverings, each of which is 
impervious to wind, with an air-space between them. 

Roofs. — Various kinds of material are used in the 
construction of roofs for poultry houses, although 
shingles are more generally employed than anything 
else. Tin, steel, and various kinds of roofing-paper 
are used, although they are more or less objection- 
able on account of the great heat radiated in the 
building during the hot summer months. 

Roofs of various forms are constructed. The 
gable and lean-to or shed roofs are used most. A 
shed roof may be constructed with a trifle less 
labor than a gable roof, yet it is not nearly so eco- 
nomical in the matter of space as the latter. At first 
thought, a shed roof may seem to include the most 
space, but upon closer analysis it will be found 
that the gable roof, other things being equal, includes 
considerably more space. To further illustrate, we 
will suppose that boards twelve feet long are to be 
used for the side walls in constructing a house 
twelve feet wide, the roof to be one-third pitch. If 
the gable form be used, the building would then 



no 



Farm Poultry 



have side walls six feet high, and the area included 
in cross section would be 96 square feet. (See Fig. 37.) 
If the shed form of roof be used and the same 
material as described above for side walls, but 72 
feet in cross section would be included. (See Fig. 
38.) It is undoubtedly true that the shed roof may 



_ — 


■- 


i 


96 Sq.Ft. 


1 

I 

/ ■ 


CD 




e ]^^ ._-... 



Fig. 37. Cross section of a poultry house with a gable roof, 96 square feet. 

be constructed at a trifle less expense for labor than 
the gable roof although it will be found necessary to 
use somewhat heavier rafters than would suffice 
for the gable roof. As long as the pitch of the roof 
remains the same, practically the same roofing 
material will be required for all forms of roof. The 
advantage that one form of roof may have over 



Forms of Roofs 



111 



another as to material of construction will occur 
in side walls, ends and partitions. It often happens 
that one style of roof may be preferred for reasons 
other than those mentioned. It may be desirable 
to have all the water from the roof on one side of 
the building, that the other side may be kept as 
dry as possible; then the shed roof would be preferred. 



Fig. 38. 
Cross section of a 
poultry house with 
a shed roof, 72 
square feet. 




Then, too, the shed roof, if the building faces the 
south, will absorb less heat from the direct rays of 
the sun than would a roof of the gable form: this 
of course will be most noticeable during the hot 
sumimer months and if a dark roofing material 
be used. 

It often happens that the location or peculiar 
conditions as to soil, exposure, etc., on the farm 



112 



Farm Poultry 



in question will require a particular form of build- 
ing that might not be advisable to construct on 
another farm under very different conditions. It 
is for each one to determine for himself that which 
may answer his purpose best. There is no hard 
and fast rule as to the construction of buildings 




*FiG. 39. Types of roofs, showing combination form. 

that will apply equally well to all of the vast multi- 
tude of conditions under which fowls may be profit- 
ably maintained on American farms. Each indi- 
vidual poultryman should ever bear in mind the 
ideal conditions for profitable work, and so construct 
his buildings that the ideal may be approached 
as nearly as possible. 

♦Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 266. 



Construction of Roofs 113 

A form of roof known as the ^^Combination'' 
has become quite popular and under some circum- 
stances has many advantages. 

Whatever form of roof be used, it should be so 
constructed that it will effectually exclude all drafts 
of air. Shingled roofs, as ordinarily constructed, 
do not sufficiently exclude drafts. In order to make 
such roofs satisfactory it is necessary to cover the 
roof boards with building-paper before the shingles 
are laid, or to provide an inner ceiling for the poul- 
try house. Either of these will exclude the drafts, 
but both are more or less objectionable. Each 
one must choose what seems to him to be the lesser 
of the two evils. The building-paper underneath 
the shingles prevents the shingles from drying as 
readily as they otherwise would, and, consequently, 
materially shortens the hfe of the roof. Experience 
has taught that the shingled roofs that dry quickest 
last longest. The ceiling on the inside of the ordinary 
shingled roofs is objectionable on account of the 
additional expense. With the steady advance in 
the price of shingles, other roofing materials are 
gaining in popular favor. Felt and paper that are 
protected by various kinds of paints and other pro- 
tective material are largely used. These roofing 
materials seem to be particularly well adapted to 
the small, low and easily accessible roofs of poultry 
houses. 

Floors. — Some successful poultry-keepers pre- 



114 Farm Poultry 

fer earth floors to artificial ones, but as these are 
somewhat more difficult to keep clean many prefer 
an artificial floor constructed of wood or cement. 
Wooden floors are used, although they are some- 
what more expensive to construct, and it is often 
necessary to replace them every few years. The 
^'submerged cement floor" is preferred by some. In 
constructing this floor the ground should be slightly 
excavated so that the top of the cement floor when 
finished will be a trifle lower than that desired for 
the fowls. The cement may be placed directly on 
the ground if the earth is firm. If the earth is not 
firm it should •be further excavated and filled with 
stone, which should be thoroughly pounded before 
applying the cement. (See Fig. 35.) After the cement 
hardens, sand or gravel may be used to cover it to 
a depth of from one to three inches. Some poultry- 
men prefer to place the cement floor somewhat 
higher than the surface of the ground in order to 
secure good drainage, depending on litter to pro- 
tect the fowls from coming in contact with the 
cement when the weather is cold. A cement floor 
properly constructed is a most excellent protection 
against rats and mice and has become very popular, 
particularly where an abundance of suitable litter 
may be obtained cheaply. These floors if properly 
constructed are most durable and are easily cleaned, 
— a most important feature. 

Windows. — For the colder latitudes, windows 



Location and Form of Windows 115 

should not be large, not more than one to every 
ten feet in length for a house twelve feet wide. These 
should be placed on the south side and at such 
distance from the floor as to allow the greatest 
possible amount of sunshine to fall upon the floor 
during the cold winter months. It is desirable to 
have the windows of such size that one may be placed 
in each division or pen. One square foot of window 
opening for each fifteen to seventeen square feet of 
floor-space will be quite sufficient under ordinary 
conditions. In order to secure most sunshine on the 
floor the windows should be so placed that their 
greatest length is vertical. At noon, during the short- 
est days of the year, in the latitude of New York 
City, the sun's rays make about the same angle 
with the horizon as that of a quarter pitch roof; that 
is, an object one foot high would cast a shadow two 
feet long. Then, if the bottom of the window be 
placed eighteen inches from the floor, the sunshine 
on the floor will be three feet from the side of the 
building in which the window is placed. In cold 
latitudes it is a common and somewhat serious mis- 
take to use more windows than are absolutely needed 
for the health and convenience of the fowls. While 
sunhght is desirable, many windows make the 
building cold, unless they are covered with shutters 
or heavy curtains, during the severest weather. It 
has been found that windows radiate about four 
times as much heat as the same area of side walls 



116 



Farm Poultry 




Fig. 40. Window of poultry house protected by a wooden shutter 
for summer use. 

in average well-constructed dwelling houses. If 
warm houses are desired large window surface 
should be avoided. A coat of whitewash on the inte- 
rior will aid materially in making the building light. 
Sliding windows are preferred on many accounts 
to those that open by means of hinges. They can 



Windows and Ventilation 117 

be partially opened for ventilation in warm weather, 
and during the extreme heat of summer they may 
be left entirely open. The opening should be covered 
with poultry netting to confine the fowls, and if the 
mesh is fine enough to exclude the English sparrow, 
annoyance is sometimes avoided. 

Whether the windows are made to slide either 
vertically or horizontally, or are hinged either at 
the top or at the sides, is a matter for each poultry- 
man to determine for himself. After considering 
the various methods of construction it is for the 
owner or manager to select that which appears to 
be best for him. He should be able to give a reason 
for the particular construction of every poultry 
appliance with which he has to deal. 

Comparatively cheap window shades may be 
made of thin matched lumber nailed together so 
as to make a solid shutter. This shade, or shutter, 
may be hinged to the side of the poultry house 
just above the window with loose hinges, the lower 
edge supported by a wire, as shown in Fig. 40. 
Such shades exclude the sun and serve as a protection 
from the heat during the warmest part of the year 
when the windows are left open. The loose hinges 
permit of easy removal for winter storage. 

Ventilation. — During the warm weather the open 
windows will afford sufficient ventilation, but dur- 
ing the colder months some means of ventilating 
the building should be provided, aside from that 



118 



Farm Poultry 



afforded by the doors and windows. Many ventila- 
tors have been planned for poultry houses, but all 
ventilators that are in continuous operation either 
give too much ventilation during the coldest weather 
or not enough during the warm, still days. As a 
rule, they furnish too much ventilation during the 
cold nights, and not enough during the sunny part 
of the day. Any system of ventilation that will 




Fig. 41. A good ventilator. 

fully meet the requirements of the busy farmer or 
poultryman must be simple and readily controlled 
by the attendant. Ventilators are not needed in 
the severest weather, but during the warm days of 
spring and whenever the temperature is above 
freezing point during the winter and early spring, 
some ventilation should be given. Farmers and poul- 
trymen should aim to ventilate their poultry houses 
as they ventilate their own sleeping apartments. 



Ventilators and Muslin Windows 119 

Little or no ventilation is needed at night during the 
severest weather in the colder latitudes, but during 
the day, when the fowls are more or less actively 
engaged in scratching in the litter, the house should 
be ventilated just as regularly as a sleeping apart- 
ment should be aired when not occupied or when 
the occupant is actively engaged in light manual 
labor. Houses with single walls will become quite 
frosty on the inside during the severest weather, 
and this will cause more or less dampness whenever 
the temperature is sufficiently high to thaw the 
frost from the walls and roof. At this time ventila- 
tion is most needed and may be supplied by placing 
a ventilator in the highest part of the roof, which 
will permit the heated air to escape. It is rarely 
necessary to provide special means for cold air 
to enter, as there is usually a sufficient number of 
cracks about doors and windows to admit cold air 
if means be provided for the lighter air to escape. 
Fig.^ 41 illustrates the construction of a cheap and 
effective ventilator. This may be readily closed 
and opened by means of cords or chains as the 
attendant passes through the house. 

Muslin windows have had and still have many 
earnest advocates. As a means of ventilation with 
minimum drafts they serve a most useful purpose. 
They transmit Hght also, but, like many other 
appliances, have some serious faults. Under some 
conditions they soon become soiled and then are 



120 



Farm Poultry 



not so effective either as transmitters of light or 
as ventilators. Their use, however, is to be com- 
mended even though they may require somewhat fre- 
quent renewals. Houses have been constructed 
with a straw ceiling as an aid to ventilation. They 
are constructed as follows: A gable-roofed house 
is floored over with narrow boards placed a few inches 




Fig. 42. A combined muslin and open front house — Cornell University. 

apart at the height of the plate or a little higher. 
These boards are then covered with clean straw 
to the depth of eight inches or a foot. The space 
between the straw and the roof is ventilated by means 
of open windows in the ends of the building. The 
heated air of the building will pass up through the 
straw and out at the windows. This may work 
nicely under certain conditions but unless other 
means are used for ventilating it will be found to 



Open-front Houses 121 

be insufficient at times and more than is needed in 
extreme cold weather. Then too, the straw soon 
becomes dusty and requires changing. This manner 
of ventilating has not become very popular. 

Open-front houses. — These have been recom- 
mended largely on account of the extreme venti- 




Fig. 43. An open front colony house. 



lation which they afford, but for cold climates they 
cannot take the place of the warmer and more 
comfortable quarters provided by careful poultry- 
men. While reasonably cold pure air is to be pre- 
ferred to warmer impure air, yet it should not be 
forgotten that it is the purity of the air and not the 
low temperature that is desirable. A moderately 



122 Farm Poultry 

warm pure air is desired. The greatest vigor cannot 
be secured if the fowls are required to breathe 
impure air. Neither can greatest production be 
obtained if the fowls are uncomfortable on account 
of the low temperature. For prolificacy the spring- 
time conditions in central northern United States 
are without doubt the nearest ideal, — a moderately 
warm temperature, pure fresh air, plenty of exer- 
cise with fresh vegetable, grain and animal food. 



CHAPTER VII 

BUILDINGS: INTERNAL ARRANGEMENTS AND YARDS 

Perches. — While the construction of the perches 
is perhaps of less importance than many other 
details of a well-equiped poultry house, yet one 
should be able to give a reason for constructing 
each part of the house in a particular way, and 
it wiU be necessary to give considerable thought 
to the planning and arrangement of minor features. 
In the construction of perches two objects should 
be kept in mind: (1) The perches should be con- 
venient for the fowls and (2) so arranged that the 
droppings may be readily caught without falling 
to the floor or soiling the litter. For heavy-bodied 
fowls the perches should not be more than two and 
one-half or three feet from the floor, and all should 
be of the same height. Many fowls prefer to perch 
far above the ground in order, without doubt, to 
be more secure from their enemies. It may be 
accepted as natural for fowls to perch at a 
considerable distance from the ground in order 
that they may be better protected from skunks, 
minks, foxes, etc. In the poultry house, from which 
these enemies are excluded, however, low perches 

(123) 



124 Farm Poultry 

are considered just as safe and much better for 
heavy-bodied fowls. More or less clumsy, heavy- 
bodied fowls ascend to high perches with difficulty, 
and are likely to be injured in alighting from any 
considerable elevation. Convenient ladders or walks 
may be constructed, which will enable the fowls to 
approach the perches without great effort, but there 
are always times when clumsy fowls will attempt 
to fly to the floor, although injury to themselves 
may result. Leghorns and other egg breeds may 
safely perch somewhat higher than the Asiatics, 
and if the buildings are well constructed this may 
be an advantage in cold weather, as the fowls will 
undoubtedly find it somewhat warmer on high 
perches than on low ones. For houses in cold lati- 
tudes that have large cubic contents for the number 
of fowls they contain high perches may be quite 
desirable, particularly if the roof or ceiling imme- 
diately above the perches be partitioned so as to 
exclude drafts quite effectually. 

Only movable perches should be constructed. 
A 2 X 3 scantling, set edgewise, with the upper 
corners rounded, answers every purpose and makes 
a satisfactory perch. Poles or narrow boards may 
be used, but whatever material is selected the 
perches should be so constructed that they will 
be firm and will not tip or rock when fowls alight 
on them. A small scantling is easy to secure firmly 
and also to clean and to disinfect. Underneath 



Perches 



125 



the perches a smooth platform should always be 
placed to catch the droppings. This is recommended 
for two reasons: first, it is much easier to keep 
the house clean and free from objectionable odors 
if the droppings are easily removed; and, second, 
the droppings are valuable as a fertihzer and should 




Fig. 44. Movable perches with board platform underneath to catch droppings. 

not be mixed with the litter on the floor. The 
distance from the perch to the platform will depend 
somewhat on the size of the fowls and on the imple- 
ment used in removing the droppings. It will also 
depend on the form of platform constructed. 

The distance between the perches and a level 
platform should not be great enough to permit 
the fowls to walk on the platform underneath the 



126 Farm Poultry 

perches. If a broad iron shovel with a tolerably 
straight handle is used, the perches need not be 
more than from five to eight inches from a level 
platform. It is desirable to have the platform 
some distance from the floor, in order that the 
fowls may occupy the floor-space underneath the 
platform. This will permit the construction of 
perches, and, at the same time, will allow the fowls 
to use all of the floor-space. The perches may 
be supported by brackets secured to the side wall, 
as shown in Fig. 44. 

Nests, — In the construction of nests in poultry 
houses, at least three points should constantly be 
kept in mind. First, the nest should be situated 
in a place which is more or less dark; second, it 
should be readily accessible to the fowls from more 
than one side; and, third, it should be constructed 
in such a way that it can be readily seen, easily 
cleaned, and thoroughly disinfected. Since it is 
important to give the fowls as much floor-space 
as possible, it is usually best to have the nest attached 
in some manner to the side or end waUs of the build- 
ing. In a general way it may be said that the num- 
ber of fowls which a poultry house will accommo- 
date depends on the floor-space and air-space which 
the house contains. Anything, therefore, that 
unnecessarily occupies floor-space will diminish the 
capacity of the house. Various plans of arranging 
nests have been adopted^ and it is difficult and 



Arrangement of Nests 127 

probably impossible to say which is the best. Each 
has advantages and disadvantages. A somewhat 
simple and easy plan of arranging nests when the 
perches are placed not more than two and one- 
half or three feet from the floor, is as follows : Under- 
neath the platform, which should always be under- 
neath the perches, as described above, the nests 
are placed in a row on the floor. From the front 
edge of the platform to the floor, in front of the 
nests, a tight board partition is constructed. This 
board partition is opened by means of a long door, 
hinged either at the top or bottom. In either 
case the lower edge of the door should be about 
level with the top of the nests. A small opening 
at one end of the door will admit fowls to the 
nests. This arrangement secures darkness for the 
nests, plenty of room for the fowls to approach 
the nests from two or three sides, and the nests 
are readily accessible for cleaning, gathering eggs, 
etc. Some of the disadvantages of this plan are 
that the nests occupy considerable floor-space and 
the fowls are sometimes incKned to deposit their 
eggs on the floor back of the nests. It is desirable 
to arrange the nests so that they may be approached 
from more than one side for the following reason: 
In flocks of fowls of any considerable size there are 
usually individuals more or less aggressive in char- 
acter, that seem to delight in exercising their mastery 
over others; such birds, when seeking a nest, will 



128 



Farm Poultry 



almost invariably drive others off the nests rather 
than take equally as convenient a nest which is 
unoccupied. If the nests can be approached from 
only one side, one hen in trying to drive the 
other off, which she will eventually accomplish, 
will force the occupant to spring from the nest 




Fig. 45. Perches and nests — West Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. 

suddenly. This may cause the eggs to be thrown 
violently to one side, and often a broken egg is 
the result. 

The vice of egg-eating is undoubtedly largely 
caused by eggs being broken accidentally, or by 
frozen eggs. If the nests can be placed in partial 



Nests and Egg-eating 129 

darkness, the habit of egg-eating should be reduced 
to a minimum. "WTiile it may not suffice to cure the 
habit when once well formed, yet it should pre- 
vent, in a large measure, the development of this 
vice. It is the duty of those constructing poultry 
houses to arrange them so that this vice, together 
with other undesirable features of poultry-keeping, 
may be avoided so far as possible. Another arrange- 
ment of nests, in which they are attached to the 
side or end walls, and therefore do not occupy 
floor-space, is recommended by many practical 
poultry-keepers. 

It is important to arrange the nests so that 
they may be readily cleaned and disinfected, for 
it is well known that if the perches and nests of 
the fowls can be kept free from mites, or so-called 
summer lice, the fowls themselves will be entirely 
free from them. If the nest boxes, therefore, are 
movable and can be readily taken out-of-doors 
for thorough cleaning, it will be found somewhat 
easier to keep them entirely free from these pests 
than if stationary nests are used, and it will cer- 
tainly be easier to exterminate them should they 
once gain a foothold. 

Nests of Leghorns, Hamburgs, and Minorcas 
may be constructed of boards, 6 inches wide, making 
boxes 8x10 inches in the clear. The American 
breeds and Asiatics should have somewhat larger 
nests. 



130 Farm Poultry 

Fine hay is satisfactory for nest material and 
excelsior answers the purpose admirably. Sea- 
grass, so extensively used in packing china and 
crockery, is an excellent material. Whatever mate- 
rial is used, it should be such as will not easily stain 
the eggs. An egg when first laid is moist, and if 
the nest material stains or gives up its coloring 
matter readily, the egg is likely to be more or less 
stained, particularly if it has a white shell. If the 
nests are placed side by side, the partitions should 
extend two inches or more above the nest material 
to prevent the fowls from attempting to draw 
the eggs from one nest to another, and, in so doing, 
cause the eggs to roll back and be broken. 

Drinking-fountains. — It is of the utmost impor- 
tance that fowls be supplied with pure water. This 
is one of the somewhat difficult problems 
that every poultryman has to meet. It 
is difficult to keep the water-dishes clean, 
particularly when the fowls are confined 
in the houses, as they are during the severe 
winter months. Scratching in 
the litter will cause more or less 
dirt to enter the drinking-dishes, 

, ,, T {, I ,, 1 Fig, 46. A simple drinking- 

and usually such fowls are fed fountain; a bottle or juk 

soft food once a day at least, ^sed as a reservoir. 

and this food will also enter the drinking-dishes to 
some extent when the fowls drink after eating. 
There are a number of patented drinking-fountains 




1 Drinking-fountains 131 

on the market, many of which are automatic and 

keep a small supply of water constantly before the 

fowls. Under favorable conditions these fountains 

will, undoubtedly, prove very satisfactory. Under 

adverse conditions, however, 

some of them have not given 

satisfaction, for the reason 

that they are difficult to 

clean. If the fountain becomes 

tainted, as it is very hkely 

to do in warm weather,, it is 

not so readily cleaned as a 

simple tin or earthen dish. 

Drinking-fountains that are 

not readily cleaned are 

objectionable. Many 

automatic fountains are Fig. 47. An improved drinking-fountam 
constructed on the ^^'^ ^ revolving reservoir. 

principle of the student lamp, which permits a 
small quantity of hquid to pass from the reservoir 
whenever a bubble of air is permitted to enter it. 
The inverted jug or bottle, with its opening placed 
in a shallow dish, illustrates the principle. (See 
Fig. 46.) An improved arrangement is seen in Fig. 
47. The reservoir is supported between two uprights 
and so arranged that it may revolve for conve- 
nience in filhng. 

Another arrangement, which has given satis- 
faction in the hands of successful poultrymen, may 




132 



Farm Poultry 



be constructed as follows (Fig. 48): An ordinary 
shallow milk-pan is placed on a block or shallow 
box, the top of which is four or five inches from 
the floor. The water or milk to be drunk by the 
fowls is placed in this pan. Over the pan is placed 
a board cover supported on pieces of lath about 
eight inches long nailed to the cover so that they 
are about two inches apart, the lower ends resting 
on the box which forms the support of the pan. 
In order to drink from the pan, it is necessary for 

the fowls to insert 
their heads be- 
tween these pieces 
of lath. The cover 
over the pan and 
the strips of lath 
at the sides pre- 
vent the poultry 
from fouling the 
water in any manner except in the act of drinking. 
When drinking-pans of this kind are used, it is very 
easy to cleanse and scald them with hot water as 
occasion demands. This arrangement can be carried 
a little further by placing a pan or, what would be 
still better, a long, narrow dish, something like a tin 
bread-tray, on a low shelf a few inches from the floor 
and hinging the cover to one side of the poultry house 
so that it can be tipped up in front for the removal 
of the dish or for filling it with water. (See Fig. 49.) 




Fig. 48. A shallow milk-pan used as a 
water basin, and protected with a board 
cover having supports of laths. 



Drinking-fountains and Dust-boxes 133 

If desired, the cover may be so constructed that 
it will be on an incline to prevent fowls from perch- 
ing on it. 

There are various forms of drinking-fountains 
on the market that are kept in stock by poultry- 
supply houses. Selection may be made from these, 
or fountains may be made from special designs, 




Fig. 49. A protected water basin. 

but whatever arrangement is made for furnishing 
water for the fowls, it should comply with these 
conditions: (1) The drinking-pan must be so con- 
structed that it may be easily and thoroughly 
cleansed; (2) fowls should have access to pure 
water at all times. 

Dust-boxes. — It is not only desirable, but neces- 
sary, to pro\dde dust-boxes for the fowls if they 
are to be kept reasonably free from body-lice. 
This is particularly true during the winter months. 



134 Farm Poultry 

During the summer, if the fowls have a more or 
less wide range, dusty places will be found out-of- 
doors wherein they may take dust-baths. During 
the late fall, winter and early spring, conveniences 
should be supplied the fowls within doors, wherein 
they may wallow in the dust. A comparatively 
small box will answer for a flock of a. dozen cr 




Fig. 50. Combined house and scratching-shcd/an excellent plan. 
Rhode Island Agricultural College. 

twent}^ hens if the attendant will see that the box 
is kept well filled with dry dust and free from litter 
and other coarse material. If these boxes can 
be so placed that they receive some sunshine on 
bright days it will be found easier to keep the 
dust dry, and fowls prefer them so located rather 
than in some dark corner. Fine road dust pro- 
cured during the hot, dry weather of July and 
August from a much traveled highway has no 
superior for this purpose. Probably there is no 



Dust-boxes and Insecticides 135 

way in which the poultryman can better combat 
the body-Hce than by providing dust-boxes for 
his fowls. 

Dust-boxes are objectionable because their use 
makes the houses so dusty and dirty. If space 
will permit, a special room or closed dust-bath with 
window facing the south can easily be constructed, 
and will keep the house comparatively free from 
dust, and the bath will be kept free from the litter 
used in the poultry house. 

It is true that the fowls may be kept compara- 
tively free from these pests by the occasional use 
of insecticides dusted thoroughly among the feathers 
of the various parts of the body, but as this method 
necessitates the handling of each bird several times 
during the season, most farmers will prefer to have 
the fowls use the dust-bath. If an insecticide, as 
powdered sulfur or insect powder, is used, it should 
be dusted through the feathers next to the skin, 
preferably in the evening when the fowls are quiet 
and on the perches, in order that the material may 
remain in the feathers for several hours. 

Yards and parks. — The question of confining 
fowls is perhaps somewhat undecided in the minds 
of many farmers. Because the fowls of a compara- 
tively small flock, when given their liberty or the 
run of the farm, thrive well and produce many eggs 
with very little attention on the part of the owner, 
it should not be inferred that large flocks will prove 



136 



Farm Poultry 



equally satisfactory under similar conditions. While 
a few fowls may be given the run of the farm with- 
out causing very much annoyance, large flocks 
would be objectionable for many reasons. 

Each individual must decide for himself whether 
he will permit his fowls to have the run of the farm, 
or whether he will confine them in pens or yards. 
Generally speaking, it is far better to confine the 




Fig. 51. Poultry house and yard. 
Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station. 

fowls within suitable inclosures. The owner then 
has control of the conditions and is more nearly 
master of the situation than it is possible for him 
to be when his fowls are given full liberty. Those 
who provide yards or runs for the fowls do not all 
agree as to the best method. There are two sys- 
tems in use, each possessing its own advantages, 
and each having warm adherents. One system or 
plan provides comparatively small areas for small- or 



Yards and Parks 137 

medium-sized flocks ; the other fences more extended 
areas for large flocks or masses. It is undoubtedly 
best for each beginner to learn what he can of the 
experience of others and then to select the plan that 
best meets his own requirements. 

Undoubtedly there is no best method of con- 
structing yards or runs for fowls. What may answer 
the purpose admirably for one would be quite 
unsuited to the conditions of another. The yards 
should be so constructed that they best meet the 
natural as well as the artificial conditions under 
which the fowls are to be kept. Figs. 52 and 53 
illustrate a way of constructing poultry houses 
and adjoining yards for moderate - sized flocks. 
This system has been used satisfactorily by success- 
ful poultrymen on comparatively level land. It 
is particularly advantageous when small yards 
are to be used that will require thorough culti- 
vation. Whatever may be the form or size of the 
yard, it should be borne in mind that the first 
requisite is cleanliness, that part of the yard nearest 
the poultry house undoubtedly requiring frequent 
cultivation. The ideal condition is to have one 
part of the yard in permanent grass and another 
part well cultivated. If a rocky or rough piece of 
land, more or less woody, is near at hand, there is 
no reason why this may not profitably form a part 
of the poultry run or yard. Poultry yards accom- 
modating fifty hens should inclose about sixteen 



138 Farm Poultry 

square rods. If fifty fowls are kept confined in the 
house and yard throughout the year, as described 
above, it will be necessary to have a considerable 
part of the yard thoroughly cultivated in order to 
keep it clean. 

The expense of constructing and maintaining 
poultry fences is considerable, and the plan to 
be preferred is the one that will give the greatest 
satisfaction with the least amount of fence. 

If the yards are to be cultivated, it will be found 
advantageous to have them long and compara- 
tively narrow. A yard two rods wide and eight 
rods long is convenient to cultivate, and is very 
satisfactory for other reasons. As it is found most 
convenient to have several pens in one house, it 
is therefore convenient to have several poultry 
yards side by side, one fence forming the boundary 
of two yards. (See Fig. 28.) Provision should be 
made for two-horse cultivation, for sometimes 
yards will need to be plowed. Whether the fences 
be entirely wood or of wire netting, they should not 
be less than seven feet high, if egg breeds are to be 
confined. In either case, it is well to have a wide 
board placed at the bottom. Sometimes it is desirable 
to confine comparatively small chickens in these 
yards. Boards at least a foot wide at the bottom 
will be very satisfactory, if the remainder of the 
fence is constructed of the ordinary two-inch mesh 
poultry netting. Should the boards be omitted, 



Yards and Shade Trees 



139 



the lower part of the fence should be formed of 
netting having a mesh smaller than two inches. 
It is undoubtedly best to provide some shade for 
the fowls. For this purpose fruit trees have given 




Fig. 52. 




Fig. 53. 

Poultry houses and yards of C. H. Wyckoff, Groton, N. Y. 

entire satisfaction. Pium trees are especially recom- 
mended for poultry yards. One of the greatest 
difficulties experienced in raising plums is caused 
by the attacks of the curculio. It has been found 
by trial that plums grown within the poultry yard 



140 Farm Poultry 

are much less liable to injury by this insect than 
those grown under similiar conditions outside of 
the yards. If several poultry yards are arranged 
side by side, the owner may provide for a plum 
orchard by planting a row of plum trees through 
the middle of each yard. The following varieties 
of plums have been especially recommended for 
this purpose: 

Lombard Burbank 

Bradshaw Coe Golden Drop 

Peter Yellow Gage 

There is no reason why an apple orchard may 
not form a poultry yard to good advantage. Par- 
ticularly would this be true if the orchard were 
kept under thorough cultivation, a practice which is 
now so strongly recommended by the most advanced 
orchardists. The whole orchard may be inclosed 
with the poultry fence and the fowls given the 
run of it. If thought advisable, simple, temporary 
yards may be provided for the various flocks during 
a part of the year, when it is desired to keep them 
separate. At other times all of the flocks may be 
given the run of the entire orchard. 

When the fowls have once become accustomed 
to their house or home, they will give the owner 
very little trouble by perching elsewhere, even 
though they be given the opportunity to do so. 
Whenever small yards are used, it will be found 
desirable to place the young birds or pullets in 



Yards and Fences 141 

their permanent yards, if possible to do so. Mature 
fowls, when moved from one pen to another, are 
more Hkely to fly over the enclosure than if kept 
throughout the season in the yard they have learned 
to recognize as home. It has frequently been noticed 
that Leghorn and Minorca hens will remain peace- 
ably in the yard in which they have been reared, 
but if moved to other yards will give the owner 



Fig. 54. Poultry houses and yards. 
West Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. 

more or less trouble by flying over the fences, 
although the latter may be as high as seven 
feet. 

In latitudes where it is not necessary to provide 
warm houses for protection against freezing, many 
small portable houses in a field of considerable 
size are preferred to more pretentious stationary 
houses with permanent yards. It is true that the 
labor of the attendant in feeding is somewhat 
increased, but considerable labor is saved in clean- 
ing and cultivating the land by merely moving the 



142 Farm Poultry 

buildings a short distance. The houses are usually 
constructed on rude and inexpensive runners, 
and are moved from place to place by means of 
horses. Small, light houses, that are used chiefly 
for shelters and roosting places, can be moved 
readily short distances by one or two horses if 
suitable provision be made for such moving when 
the houses are constructed. Many poultrymen 
prefer this method, that they may avoid cultivating 
the yards and yet secure fresh, clean runs for their 
fowls. 



CHAPTER VIII 

THE IMPROVEMENT AND BREEDING OF FOWLS 

As a dairyman would make a serious mistake 
in selecting cattle for his dairy if he should draw 
from any but the noted dairy breeds, so the poul- 
tryman or farmer would make an equally serious 
mistake if fowls were chosen that were not specially 
adapted to his purposes. The ultimate success of 
a business depends largely on the skiU of the manager 
in selecting the proper agents or machines to do the 
work. If inferior agents are used to produce a 
merchantable article, either the article produced 
is not first-class or the cost of production is npt 
reduced to a minimum. In either case the producer is 
not able to compete successfully with those who 
have a better equipment. 

SELECTION 

The importance of choosing a suitable breed 
or variety for a special purpose is likely to be under- 
estimated. Apparently the same importance is 
not given to differences between the useful breeds 
of fowls that is recognized between the different 

(143) 



144 Farm Poultry 

breeds of cattle and horses. In reality, as great 
differences exist. The importance of a proper 
selection is still further emphasized when the con- 
ditions under which the fowls are to be kept are 
taken into consideration. Some fowls will thrive 
fairly well under conditions that would not prove 
adequate for the profitable maintenance of others. 
Too often a particular variety is selected for farm 
use because some fine-looking or profitable flock 
has been seen which has created a desire in the mind 
of the visitor ta possess a similar flock. This is 
sometimes done without considering the special 
purposes for which these fowls are to be kept, and 
perhaps without taking into account the conditions 
under which the flock is to be maintained, even 
though these conditions differ materially from those 
under which the admired flock existed. 

The great variety of fowls now bred in this 
country offers to the poultryman and farmer a 
wide field for selection. It must be borne in mind 
that of this great variety all are not equally well 
adapted to various purposes of utility. While a 
certain breed may give entire satisfaction in the 
hands of one poultry-keeper, another may find 
these fowls quite unsatisfactory because he is unable 
to give them the necessary care and to provide the 
conditions under which they thrive best. It may 
happen, therefore, that under a somewhat careless 
management the most noted egg-breeds may not 



Selecting for Improvement 145 

prove the most satisfactory for egg production. 
The capabilities of the fowls and the conditions 
under which they are to be kept should both be 
taken into consideration before fowls are selected 
for a special purpose. 

The wide-awake, progressive poultrjnnan will 
ever be watchful to improve his fowls for the pur- 
pose in view, after procuring those that seem best 
adapted to his wants. He must not be content with 
merely choosing a proper flock. Selection should 
go on year after year, and the fowls be continually 
im_proved for the purpose for which they are kept, 
and under the existing conditions. 

Selecting eggs. — In the attempt to still further 
increase the productiveness of his flock it will be 
well for the poultryman to study carefully, or at 
least as best he can, the accompUshments that have 
already been achieved along the Hnes of increased 
egg production and the manner in which these 
improvements have been brought about. 

It will not be questioned that the most prolific 
fowls of today are, as egg producers, greatly superior 
to the wild fowls from which they have descended. 
And also that marked improvement has been made 
well within the memory and even practice of poul- 
trymen who are now maintaining flocks of fowls 
for market products. Lessons drawn from these 
achievements cannot fail to be of value to one 
who aims to still further improve the medium by 



146 Farm Poultry 

means of which ordinary commercial feed is trans- 
formed into desirable poultry products. Whatever 
may be learned from these improvements will surely 
have the important quality of being practical. 
Imitators of the successful are following a safe 
guide, even though they may seem to be "making 
haste slowly." 

Some of the noted, if not the most noted breeders 
and improvers of fowls for egg production, have laid 
great stress on egg selection. They were careful to 
select the best layers of the pullet year for breeders, 
and from these hens eggs were selected for hatching. 
That is, year-old hens, that were used for the main- 
tenance and improvement of the flocks, were the 
best layers during their pullet year. This practice 
carefully pursued year after year, by these poultry- 
men, resulted in the steady improvement of the 
fowls for egg production. 

Without doubt all of the improvers who have 
achieved success have been skilful feeders and also 
have provided congenial homes for their fowls. 
It will be impossible to say just how much of the 
improvement has been due to egg selection, to feed, 
to environment, and how much to the influence of 
the males; but surely the noted breeders who have 
secured marked improvement in egg production 
have laid much stress on egg selection. 

Whenever it is convenient to do so, a few of 
the best-laying hens should be placed by them- 



Selecting for Vigor 147 

selves in order that their eggs alone may be used 
for hatching. If it is impossible to select fowls 
for breeding purposes from the records of egg pro- 
duction, which is the true test of the laying hen, 
the owner must resort to other methods. One of 
the best substitutes for actual performance undoubt- 
edly is to select for strength and vigor of constitu- 
tion. It is well understood that if the animal machine 
is not strong it will be unable to perform the greatest 
service. The best layers are strong, large-bodied, 
vigorous fowls. They are known to have strong 
constitutions. 

' If breeders are to select for vigor, they can do 
no better, perhaps, than to make the choice at the 
molting period. Strong, vigorous fowls pass through 
the molting period very much more rapidly than 
do those having a weak constitution. The robust 
hen that lays a large number of eggs during the year 
will pass through the molting period quickly, and 
will hardly stop laying, while the one having a weak 
constitution will be a long time in producing a new 
coat of feathers, and will not lay for many weeks. 
The experienced poultryman, therefore, finds this 
period in the life of the fowl a most excellent one 
in which to make his selection. The fact that the 
bird with a strong constitution is the most profitable 
for egg production may explain why the fowls of 
poultrymen who make a specialty of egg production 
average larger than the fowls of those who breed 



148 Farm Poultry 

for exhibition. Almost without exception, the aver- 
age size of fowls of flocks specially noted for egg lay- 
ing is considerably larger than the average size of 
fowls of the pure-bred stock of that breed. As a 
good-sized body and a deep and broad breast are 
indicative of a strong constitution, so are they the 
requisites of a good laying hen. 

If one is compelled to make a selection for egg 
production solely from the general conformation 
or appearance of the fowl, he should select deep, 
long-bodied birds. Those having a short underline, 
circular in outline, should be discarded. The feeding 
capacity of the hen is important, for those that are 
able to digest and assimilate large quantities of 
food are vigorous fowls and consequently can pro- 
duce eggs in abundance. 

At present there is a wide divergence of opinion 
as to the manner in which improvement has been 
brought about. Some of the experimenters hold that 
egg production in^the female ancestry is not a potent 
factor in improvement. 

*''That the egg record of an individual hen 
gives no definite indication whatever as to what the 
probable laying of her daughter will be. Exami- 
nation of hundreds of pedigree records leaves no 
doubt as to the truth of this fact. Individual birds 
with high egg records are as likely as not to produce 
daughters that make poor egg records, and vice 

*Maine Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 192. 



Selecting for Egg Production 149 

versa. From the laying record of an individual hen 
it is quite impossible for any one to tell whether 
its progeny will be good layers or poor layers." 

However, the more conservative breeders are 
still pursuing the methods that have been pro- 
ductive of greatest good in the past. 

Americans look very much closer to the color 
and feather markings than do the English. So far 
as meat and egg production are concerned, the 
English, without doubt, have the advantage. As 
shown in a previous chapter, it is undoubtedly much 
more difficult to develop two unrelated character- 
istics to the highest state of perfection than to 
develop a single characteristic. The Englishman, 
therefore, who seeks egg production without special 
regard to the color of the plumage finds it easier 
to reach the highest state of perfection than does the 
American who desires to breed fowls for egg pro- 
duction and, at the same time, have them true 
to feather. 

If one must select fowls for exhibition purposes 
and breed them for fancy points, it will undoubtedly 
be best to choose some solid-colored breed or va- 
riety whose tendency to depart from the standard 
color is not strong. It should not be inferred that 
all solid-colored fowls are easy to breed true to color; 
in fact, some of the so-called solid colors, notably 
the buffs, are the most difficult to breed to perfection. 

The question of securing fertile eggs for incu- 



150 Farm Poultnj 

bation is one that always gives breeders more or 
less concern. Some breeders are more successful 
than others in securing fertile eggs, and, appar- 
ently, all breeders are more successful during some 
seasons than others. Some breeds of fowls are 
noted for producing fertile eggs, while others are 
generally recognized as inferior in this respect. 
The freedom given the fowls of a flock, the vigor 
of the individuals, and the number of males, very 
largely determine the fertility. Pullets' eggs are 
generally not selected for hatching. It is thought 
that they are not so likely to be fertile, and will 
not produce so strong and vigorous chickens as 
hens' eggs. 

Those who have had experience in operating 
incubators know that not all fertile eggs will hatch. 
There seem to be all grades of fertihty, from the egg 
having a vigorous germ that will produce a strong, 
healthy chicken, to that having a weak germ and 
is practically an infertile egg. As the two extremes 
are united by various intermediate grades, it is 
impossible to draw a definite line of separation 
which shall divide the fertile from the infertile ones. 

Fresh eggs are to be preferred for hatching, 
although good hatches from eggs that were kept 
several weeks are reported. Eggs are sometimes 
sent long distances and still retain their vitality 
sufficiently to produce a good number of strong 
chicks. The following is quoted from an experi- 



Fertility of Eggs ' 151 

ment station publication:* ''Where the incubator 
is placed in a room whose temperature is reason- 
ably even and is properly managed, a high percentage 
of hatch may be expected only (a) when the hens 
have plenty of exercise, (&) when the eggs are 
freshly laid." 

After the male is removed, the eggs are thought 
to be fertile for a few days, — ''from four to four- 
teen days'' is given by some authors. The following 
gives the results of definite observations if "On the 
farm of the Ohio State University, 40 Leghorn hens 
which had previously been kept without males 
were placed in pens with the male birds February 
18, and the percentage of fertile eggs observed for 
nine days after mating. This increased regularly 
from 0, on the day of mating, to 95 per cent on the 
eighth day after mating. July 1 the males were 
removed from the pens. The fertility of the eggs 
was apparently not materially affected until the 
twelfth day after removing the roosters. . . . 
Unfortunately the eggs were saved only fifteen days, 
and hence it is not shown how long hens must be 
removed from the male before all the eggs become 
infertile." 

For the greatest production of eggs, males are 
not required except for the breeding-pen. Many 
poultrymen who have made a speciahty of egg 

*Bulletin No. 158, Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station. 
tAgricultural Student I (1894), in Experiment Station Record. 



152 Farm Poultry 

production and have won for themselves a repu- 
tation in this direction, have found by experience 
that males are of no use in the laying-pen, and are 
often a positive injury when eggs for food only are 
desired. Tests that have been made at experiment 
stations to determine the influence of males on egg 
production tend to show that the practice of poul- 
trymen in excluding males is most advantageous. 
The following paragraph is taken from an experiment 
station bulletin :* 

^^A pen of pullets kept without a male produced 
eggs at about 30 per cent less cost than an exactly 
similar pen with which a cockerel was kept. . . . 
In each of the two pens without male birds some 
pullets had begun to lay from one to two months 
earlier than any in the corresponding pens in which 
male birds were kept." 

BREEDING 

Heredity. — Since the earliest times of which 
any authentic records have been preserved, owners 
of live stock have made attempts to improve the 
animals under their charge by the art of breed- 
ing. Accounts 'state that the ancients recognized 
the principle in breeding that "like begets like," 
and depended on it quite as much as on any other 
principle. It is on this principle that the poul- 

*Bulletin No. 57, New York Agricultural Experiment Station, 



Transmission of Characters 153 

tryman and stock owner depend for the perpetu- 
ation of species, breeds and varieties. In this 
principle is recognized the law which, within cer- 
tain limits, makes offspring like their parents. The 
development of this theory no doubt came from a 
close observation of domesticated animals. Had 
only wild animals been observed, it is likely that 
the similarity of offspring to parents would have 




Fig. 55. Breeding and exhibition house and runs — Rhode Island 
Agricultural College. 

been taken as a matter of course, and what is 
now known as the law of heredity would have 
been studied comparatively little. 

Poultry-breeders recognize the law that off- 
spring resemble their parents within certain limits, 
and depend upon this law more than upon any 
other as the foundation upon which the improve- 
ment by breeding depends. If it were not for the law 
of heredity, selection would be practically of no 
value. If strong, hearty, vigorous parents, which 



154 * Farm Poultry 

are noted for their useful qualities, were unable 
to transmit their desirable traits, it might be 
quite as profitable to breed from the most use- 
less of animals. In other words, the value of selec- 
tion depends upon the abihty of the parent to 
impress its own characteristics upon its offspring. 
That characteristics are transmitted to a certainty, 
within certain limits, is evident to all. Were this 
not true there would be no continuity of species, 
and plants and animals would not ''bring forth after 
their kind." A description of one typical Clydesdale 
horse will apply to all Clydesdales. 

Variation. — It has long been recognized that 
there is "a tendency to vary within certain limits, 
and that this tendency is always present in all 
classes of animals, whether wild or domesticated. 
The fact that wild birds and animals possess suffi- 
cient individuality to make them readily recognizable 
by each other is adequate proof that these animals 
are not precisely alike in all respects. We readily 
distinguish the differences between individual mem- 
bers of our herds and flocks, although all members 
of a flock or herd may have sprung from the mating 
of two individuals, and therefore have the same 
lineage. It is more difficult to observe the differ- 
ences in wild birds and animals, yet such differences 
exist sufficiently to show that the law of variation is 
universal and constant in its action. It has been said 
that ''no two animals are exactly alike in all respects." 



Improvement through Variation 155 

The tendency to vary is transmitted from pa- 
rents, to progeny in the same way that other pecu- 
Harities are transmitted. This has often been of the 
greatest importance in the improvement of fowls, 
mammals and plants. Breeders who are trying 
to improve their stock are continually endeavoring 
to bring the law of heredity into force so far as 
desirable characteristics are concerned, and as 
continually striving to prevent the operation of 
the law so far as undesirable characteristics are 
concerned. 

The fact that animals vary permits of an indi- 
vidual being an improvement on its parents. If 
this individual is allowed to transmit its good char- 
acteristics, improvement may be attained. With- 
out progressive variation breeders could not secure 
improvement. Probably all they could do would 
be to prevent deterioration. 

If a breeder is trying to improve his flock, he 
looks closely for those individuals that show the 
greatest tendency to vary. These individuals he 
selects for breeding stock. He finds that their 
young vary considerably. They do not closely 
resemble each other, nor do they closely resemble 
their parents. If an abundance of good food and 
congenial surroundings be provided, he may expect, 
in the course of a few generations, that some indi- 
viduals will show a marked tendency to vary in 
the direction of improvement. By judicious mating, 



156 



Farm Poultry 



some or all of the desired improvements may be 
transmitted and rendered permanent. The improve- 
ment of breeds consists essentially in fixing the 
desired variations. 

Poultrymen usually look to the male for the 
greatest tendency to vary.* Consequently in many 
improvements and in the development of many 
new breeds the male leads. As a rule, the males 




Fig. 5G, An inclosed scratching-shed, an excellent plan- 
Island Agricultural Experiment Station. 



-Rhode 



of a breed or variety differ more from one another 
than the females differ from each other. The young 
more nearly resemble the female than they do the 
male. It is also observed that the organs most 
highly developed in the male differ more than do 
the organs which are most highly developed in the 
female, — that is, the comb, wattles, and tail, which 
are most highly developed in the male, differ more 

*"Heredity," by Wm. H. Brooks, 



In-and-in-breeding 157 

than those parts which are most highly developed 
in the female. The improvement of domesticated 
fowls depends upon the transmission of desired 
characteristics which have been produced through 
the action of this law or fact of variation. 

In-and-in-breeding . — This term is often used 
in a rather loose sense to indicate the breeding 
together of animals which are more or less closely 
related. It is generally used, however, to indicate 
the breeding together of animals that are closely 
related for several successive generations; and in 
this sense it is used in this discussion. As breeders 
have not agreed on an exact definition of in-and-in- 
breeding, there is a considerable difference of opin- 
ion as to just what the term imphes. Some breeders 
hold that the term implies only the mating of animals 
of the closest relationship, while others strenuously 
maintain that more distant relationship should be 
included. It is held by some that breeding together 
animals which have a more distant degree of relation- 
ship than that known in the human family as aunt 
and nephew or uncle and niece, should not be recog- 
nized as coming within the meaning of this term. 
On the other hand, others are emphatic in including 
more remote relationship. 

In-and-in-breeding has played a most important 
part in the formation of breeds and also in the 
improvement of breeds that were well established. 
As variation and selection enable the breeder to 



158 Farm Poultry 

produce individuals of superior merit, he will 
naturally try to perpetuate this superiority and to 
reap the advantages of it through successive gene- 
rations in his herd or flock. This has been made 
possible through in-and-in-breeding. Almost with- 
out exception marked improvement is first noted 
in one or two animals. If the progeny of these 
animals are bred to each other or to one of their 
parents, the young resulting from this mating will 
contain a much larger percentage of the ^^blood" 
of the animal in which the improvement was noted 
than could be obtained in any other way. Con- 
sequently the chances that the improvement will 
be transmitted are considerably enhanced. 

In other words, in-and-in-breeding enables the 
breeder to accumulate or ^^pile up" the blood of 
a superior animal in the descendants of this valu- 
able individual. To make use of an illustration, 
it may be supposed that A and B represent two 
animals of the same breed and that A is of superior 
merit. If these animals are mated, the blood of 
the progeny will be represented by one-half A and 
one-half B. If A be bred to one of the progeny, the 
blood of the offspring of the last union will be repre- 
sented by three-fourths A and one-fourth B. This 
practice may be repeated in succeeding generations 
and would be accepted by all as in-and-in-breeding. 
As the percentage of blood is increased the improve- 
ment is more likely to be perpetuated. 



Benefits and Dangers of in-and-in-hreeding 159 

While in-and-in-breeding serves a most useful 
purpose, under certain conditions, it should not be 
forgotten that it may also cause deterioration in 
various ways. A commonly accepted belief is, that 
the practice of in-and-in-breeding may result in a 
reduced constitution, may weaken the mental vigor, 
reduce the size of the individuals and make them 
less prolific. Many instances might be cited to show 
that any one or all of these evils may accrue from 
in-and-in-breeding, and it is also true that any one 
or all of these evils will not be produced to a cer- 
tainty by this practice. 

It is recognized that both good and evil results 
may follow the practice of in-breeding, but it is 
not generally accepted that the good or evil results 
are in proportion to the degree of relationship 
between the animals mated. If in-breeding is to be 
practised, the degree of relationship should not be 
the determining factor. A more rational selection 
is based on the individual merits of the animals to be 
mated. When related individuals are to be bred 
together, the selection should be made on the suita- 
bility of the animals to each other and not wholly 
on the degree of relationship. 

The safety with which in-and-in-breeding may 
be practised will depend largely on the skill that 
is used in selecting the related animals that are 
to be mated, and on the extent to which the practice 
is carried. The skilful breeder will be able to derive 



160 Farm Poultry 

many benefits, and will cease the practice before 
positive injuries accrue. It may safely be asserted, 
that promiscuous or indiscriminate in-and-in-breed- 
ing should not be practised. 

Farmers sometimes select from their young 
fowls the best cockerel to head the flock the next 
year, and hold that as long as they are breeding 
from their best stock, improvement should follow. 
In so doing, they perhaps forget that the weaknesses 
are more likely to be multiplied in the progeny than 
the desired characteristics. 

Anything like general or flock in-and-in-breeding 
should not be attempted; neither should in-and-in- 
breeding be practised by any except careful and 
keen observers who have a good knowledge of the 
animals with which they are dealing and are able 
to detect tendencies for good or evil at an early 
stage of development. 

Cross-breeding. — This may be defined as breed- 
ing together animals of two distinct breeds. For 
many years cross-breeding was a favorite method, 
and probably became popular because of the fre- 
quently observed fact that increased vigor was 
imparted by it. During the eighteenth century, 
animals were frequently cross-bred, which, undoubt- 
edly, produced in the progeny a plasticity of con- 
stitution and well prepared them for the hands of 
skilful breeders who later attempted to improve them. 

Crossing does not always bring improvement, 



Dangers of Cross-breeding 161 

although there seems to be a somewhat prevalent 
idea that such improvement necessarily results. 
While certain breeds may be crossed and will thus 
produce increased vigor in the progeny, yet there 
is frequently a tendency to reversion. That is, the 
progeny will resemble a remote ancestor, perhaps 
one of the original breeds from which the improved 
animals were descended. Charles Darwin bred a 
Black Spanish and a 'White Silky together and in 
the second generation secured a fowl that very 
much resembled the wild Jungle Fowl of India, 
from which domesticated fowls are supposed to 
have descended. 

Whenever a cross is made between individuals 
of distinct and well-estabhshed breeds, reversion 
is most likely to occur. That is, the blood of cer- 
tain distinct breeds does not blend well. It is said 
that a well-established white breed crossed upon 
a black one that is equally well estabhshed, is 
quite as Hkely to produce copper-colored chicks as 
black or white, or a mixture of the two. There 
seems to be a greater tendency to reversion when- 
ever violent crosses are made. 

There is a somewhat prevalent idea that if a 
fowl that has certain good quahties be crossed on 
one having other good qualities, the offspring 
will have the good qualities of both. This is a most 
serious mistake. In fact, the poor quahties of both 
parents are even more likely to be seen in the off- 



162 Farm Poultry 

spring than are the good quahties of both. Some 
authorities state that the poor quahties of both 
parents are more hkely to be seen in the offspring 
than the good quahties of either. 

When we consider that the characters of the 
parents that are most hkely to be transmitted to the 
offspring are those that are common to both parents, 
we can understand that when the improved char- 
acters of the parents differ widely the unimproved 
characters that are common to both are most likely 
to be transmitted. 

There is much controversy over the influence of 
a preceding sire on the offspring. Some breeders 
hold that in mammals if a pure-bred female becomes 
pregnant by a mongrel she is forever after incapable 
of bearing pure-bred offspring. Poultrymen, how- 
ever, do not hold such extreme views. It is doubtful 
whether it has been clearly shown that the breed- 
ing qualities of a pure-bred hen have been injured 
by a previous mating. 

Cross-breeding has rendered a great service 
in the formation of new breeds. The Plymouth 
Rocks and Wyandottes are famihar exam^ples of 
breeds formed by crossing well-established breeds. 
It is of doubtful economy to cross pure-bred fowls 
of well-established races, except for special pur- 
poses which will rarely be of service to the general 
farmer. It may happen that skilled poultrymen will 
find it to their advantage to cross distinct breeds for 



Pure-bred Stock 163 

the production of a speciality which has become 
quite famous. Successful practices of this kind are 
comparatively few, and are of foremost interest to 
the specialist. Whenever pure breeds are crossed 
it is for the production of a merchantable product, 
and the use of these fowls for the production of pure- 
bred stock is therefore lost. 

Breed pure-bred stock. — The question is frequently 
asked whether it will pay to breed pure-bred stock. 
If the answer is made candidly and honestly it must 
be given as both affirmative and negative. It cer- 
tainly will pay to breed pure-bred stock if proper 
food, care and management be given. It probably 
will not pay the average farmer to invest in expen- 
sive pure-bred stock and to keep this stock in the 
way in which the fowls of mixed breeding are gen- 
erally kept throughout the country. As the pure- 
bred stock had received superior advantages in 
order to bring it to its greatest usefulness, so must 
it receive advantages which the common stock of 
the country does not receive if it is to remain supe- 
rior. In other words, the common stock of mixed 
breeding throughout the country is practically 
equal to the thoroughbred stock that is kept under 
the same conditions for any considerable length of 
time. If neglect and improper feeding are not to enter 
into the problem, the pure-bred stock will, undoubt- 
edly, give by far the best satisfaction. The grain- 
raiser finds that a certain variety of grain is hardy 



164 Farm Poultry 

and is recognized as ''sure/' that is, it rarely fails to 
bring a reasonable crop, yet under the most favorable 
conditions would not produce a maximum crop. 
Under the most favorable conditions other varieties 
may outyield this hardy one, but under adverse 
conditions would not be able to withstand the severe 
test endured by it. So we find pure-bred stock, in 
some respects, resembles the improved and more 
productive but less hardy varieties of grain. Under 
the most favorable conditions the pure breeds will, 
undoubtedly, prove most remunerative. Under 
adverse conditions, where hardiness is the all-impor- 
tant consideration, the useful qualities cannot remain 
so highly developed. 

It is frequently said that if pure-bred stock is 
good for anything it should prove superior in the 
same conditions under which common stock is 
usually kept; but the owner of common stock says 
that he does not believe in pampering his fowls. 
This is a serious mistake, and one that frequently 
prevents the true appreciation of improved breeds. 
It should not be forgotten that the best of improved 
breeds have reached their superiority through years 
of skilful feeding and breeding. Food has always 
played an important part in the formation and 
improvement of all noted useful breeds. Abundant 
feeding and good care have produced an organiza- 
tion that is capable of digesting and assimilating 
large quantities of food and turning it to good 



Common and Pure-bred Stock Compared 165 

account. That is, the machine is an economical one 
and strong enough to do much work. The farmer 
who invests in pure-bred stock and gives it the 
same treatment that has maintained for years an 
indifferent lot of fowls finds the improved stock 
satisfactory at first, but succeeding generations 
become more and more unsatisfactory until they 
reach the level of the common stock, which was the 
highest standard that his care and feeding could 
maintain. Such breeders stoutly maintain that it 
does not pay to breed pure-bred stock. 

Improved breeds are the best, and should be 
selected whenever it is possible to give them proper 
food and care. While they may not prove greatly 
superior under adverse conditions, yet they respond 
so much more quickly to improved conditions that 
those who are able to care properly for their fowls 
will derive much greater profit from the best than 
from the ordinary. Improved breeds are most 
remunerative when an abundance of suitable food 
is provided, and the fowls are given care conducive 
to the particular purpose for which they are kept. 

IMPROVEMENT OF COMMON FOWLS 

If it is desired to improve the fowls of the farm 
without the outlay of any considerable time or 
money except that which is to be given in providing 
better food and environment, perhaps the most 



166 Farm Poultry 

satisfactory way is to use a pure-bred male. This 
method enables the farmer or poultryman to change 
at once one-half of his breeding flock to pure-bred 
stock so far as influence on the progeny is concerned. 
From the breeders' standpoint the male consti- 
tutes one-half of the flock, and under the average 
existing conditions this will probably be a fair state- 
ment of the male's influence. Undoubtedly there 
are many instances in which the male's influence 
is very much greater than the combined influence of 
all the females of the flock. Instances of this kind 
are more likely to be seen when the male is a well- 
formed, strong, vigorous bird, from equally well- 
formed, strong, pure-bred ancestors. If these con- 
ditions have existed for several generations, the 
importance of the male is all the more marked. 

If the females are of mixed or no particular 
breeding, their influence is likely to be far less than 
that of the male. So it may be safely said that the 
influence of a strong, vigorous, pure-bred male, 
introduced into a flock of females of mixed breeding, 
will be at least equal to that of all the females in a 
transmission of parental characteristics. The 
progeny from a well-bred male and females of mixed 
breeding are generally quite uniform in form and 
color. Many a farmer's boy has been delighted with 
the sudden improvement of a flock of fowls by the 
introduction of a pure-bred male. In fact, many 
of them have found that the progeny of this breed- 



Improvement of Common Stock 167 

ing have proved to be the most desirable fowls 
for the farm. Some of them, to their sorrow, have 
tried to maintain the fine appearance and highly 
useful quaUties of these fowls by selecting breeding 
stock from the general flock. Consequently, the 
next generation was less satisfactory, and the third 
and fourth were disappointii^ig. This condition has 
been most noticeable when the pure-bred male 
and the more or less indifferent females have repre- 
sented quite marked differences in type. Instead of 
selecting a male from the general flock, another 
pure-bred male of the same breed as the first 
should have been secured. This process is known 
in stock-breeding as ''grading up." The larger 
the proportion of pure-bred blood the higher the 
grade. 

In breeding for egg production it is held to be of 
great importance to select males whose female 
ancestors possessed the desired characteristics to 
a marked degree. The fact that the characteristics 
of our fowls are transmitted through the male 
makes it comparatively easy for the poultryman to 
improve his flock through the introduction of supe- 
rior pure-bred males. It is held by some that egg 
production, which is a reproductive function, is 
transmitted almost wholly through the male. How- 
ever^ the conservative breeder will be slow to entirely 
give up certain practices as to selection that in 
the past have apparently been potent factors for 



168 Far7n Poultry 

good, and place his whole dependence on the influence 
of the male. 

A rational method of improving a flock of fowls 
is first to choose with great care the breed for the 
purpose; from this breed pick a strong, vigorous, 
pure-bred male, and mate him with the best hen; 
from the progeny of this mating select the best 
females, to place with another vigorous, pure-bred 
male of the same breed as the first. This operation 
should be repeated each year, and eventually the fowls 
will have all the characteristics of pure-bred fowls. 
The yearly choice of a pure-bred male should be 
continued. 

It is undoubtedly best to breed from unrelated 
stock so far as possible. It may also be safely said 
that if the greatest improvement is to be made, 
only mature fowls should be used for . breeding 
purposes. Particularly is this true with the females 
of egg breeds. Pullets are not so desirable as hens 
for breeding purposes. Continued breeding from 
immature stock has a tendency to weaken the con- 
stitution and to reduce the size. If it is necessary 
to use pullets they should, as a rule, be mated with 
mature males. On the other hand, it is frequently 
desirable to mate hens with cockerels. 

Breed useful fowls. — It is the object of the farmer 
to breed useful fowls. While the individuals may 
not possess the requisite fancy points to win prizes 
at exhibitions, yet these same individuals should 



Breed Useful Fowls 169 

be noted for usefulness. The most noted flocks for 
egg production, those that have gained a national 
reputation, have been selected and improved for 
this one particular quality to the exclusion of fancy 
points, on which so much importance is placed at 
the great poultry exhibitions. In the early history 
of these flocks, the surplus birds were not largely 
sold for breeding purposes. The reputation of 
these flocks had not been estabhshed, and because 
the birds did not possess the prize-winning fancy 
points, the demand for them was not equal to the 
supply. In later years, when the reputation of these 
flocks became well known, the surplus stock found 
ready sale at remunerative prices, solely because 
of their usefulness. While farm stock should receive 
recognition at agricultural fairs, yet it will be shown 
at a disadvantage when placed in competition with 
the fanciers' fowls, which are bred largely for exhi- 
bition. The farmer's stock should be selected and 
maintained for the profit of eggs and meat, rather 
than for the profit which the fowls may bring when 
sold for breeding stock. 

It is quite possible that many farmers may sell 
breeding stock at remunerative prices, although 
the main object should not be to produce birds for 
this purpose. WTienever one depends on the sale 
of fowls for breeding purposes for profit, it becomes 
necessary to enter into competition with other 
breeders at the great poultry shows. This necessi- 



170 Farm Poultry 

tates a departure from the purpose for which farm 
fowls are kept. 

Farmers and others who maintain flocks for 
usefulness should not forget the importance of 
selection. Remember that all improvement is largely 
due to selection, and that after the flock is well 
established it can be further improved for the pur- 
poses for which the breeds are kept by rigorous 
selection, skilful breeding, and improved feeding. 
It is possible for every farmer to improve any breed 
of fowls for his purpose. This of course implies 
productiveness under certain conditions. A breed 
of fowls, or a flock of fowls of a distinct breed, may 
be brought to a high state of perfection by a poul- 
tryman, considering the conditions under which 
he keeps them, and under more favorable conditions 
they may be still further improved. 



CHAPTER IX 

FEEDING FOB EGGS AND FOR MEAT 

The successful poultry-keeper recognizes that 
not all kinds of wholesome poultry food which 
the market affords are equally well suited to his 
fowls which he keeps for the production of either 
eggs or meat. He lays great stress on the careful 
selection of food for the making of special products. 

FEEDING FOR EGGS 

If one desires to feed economically for egg pro- 
duction, and has learned httle or nothing from 
experience, a most valuable lesson may be learned 
from nature. It will be observed that those fowls 
which are more or less neglected, and, conse- 
quently, not so far removed from the natural 
state, lay most abundantly in the spring. In this 
respect, then, the poultry-keeper may profitably 
aim, so far as it Hes within his power, to prolong 
the spring throughout the year. In the spring 
these fowls are at Hberty to roam at will and to 
find abundant green food in the tender shoots 
of grass and other plants. They find meat food in 

n7i) 



172 Farm Poultry 

the form of insects, worms and other low forms of 
animal life. These, with grain in some form, make 
a most perfect food for laying hens. If the grain 
food is not supplied to them by the poultry-keeper, 
they may still find it in the form of seeds of various 
plants. In other words, it should be the aim of 
the poultry-keeper to supply the food and conditions 
which tend to produce eggs most abundantly. 
While it is true that the physical organization of 
fowls is such that they will be unable to maintain 
throughout the year the abundant supply of eggs 
of the springtime, yet this will be most nearly 
approached if the conditions are springlike the 
year round. 

Exercise. — In the spring season the fowls that 
are given free range obtain abundant exercise. It is 
important to provide exercise for all noted egg 
breeds, as these fowls are active in disposition. 
Close confinement without exercise is not condu- 
cive to the best results, although the quality and 
quantity of food provided may be most excellent. 
While exercise is required for egg production, it 
is not desirable when the finest quality of meat is 
sought, particularly during the last of the fattening 
period, so that what may be said of exercise for egg 
production should not be applied to fattening fowls. 

Quality of food, — It has been clearly shown by 
experiments that the food consumed by laying 
hens affects the flavor of the eggs. In extreme 



Influence of Food on Flavor of Egg 173 

cases, not only is the flavor of the food imparted, 
but the odor as well. Onions* have been fed to 
fowls in sufficient quantity to impart a decided 
flavor and odor to the eggs. So marked was the 
result that persons wholly unacquainted with the 
experiment had no difficulty in distinguishing 
these eggs from those which were laid by hens 
fed a normal ration. 

The mere fact that food influences the flavor of 
eggs in extreme cases, is a sufficient reason for 
the poultryman to reject all food that is not strictly 
wholesome. It has not been determined to what 
extent the ordinary poultry foods influence the 
flavor; but tainted food should not be permitted 
to enter into the composition of the ration. If 
food of high and objectionable flavor imparts its 
peculiar taste and odor to the egg, it is not safe 
for those who desire to produce a prime article 
to run unnecessary risks in feeding doubtful food. 
Pure, wholesome food is so abundant and cheap that 
there is no excuse for a questionable practice. 

Oftentimes food of an inferior quality as to 
market requirements may serve a most useful 
purpose as poultry food, and its use would not 
in any way be condemned. Shrunken and cracked 
grain, and mixed grains that cannot be readily 
separated may make most excellent food, while 

*From unpublished results of experiments conducted by the author, 
at Cornell University. 



174 Farm Poultry 

those foods that are moldy or have objectionable 
odors or flavors should be avoided. 

Forced feeding J or eggs. — It is maintained by 
some authorities that, when hens are given a course 
of forced feeding for egg production, their period 
of usefulness is materially shortened. This, no doubt, 
may be true in some instances, when the fowls 
have been injudiciously fed. Experience has shown 
that it is possible with ordinarily vigorous animals 
to carry the forcing process so far that many indi- 
viduals will be permanently injured. These cases, 
however, should be considered as extreme and do 
not come within the province of judicious feeding. 
The injury done to dairy animals by forced feeding 
is undoubtedly chiefly due to the injudicious feed- 
ing of unnatural foods. The injury is associated 
mostly with the digestive functions. While it may 
be possible to injure the digestion of laying hens by 
forced feeding, yet the danger from this practice 
is very much less with poultry than with other 
classes of farm stock. Given a suitable ration and 
an opportunity to take necessary exercise in pure 
air, the hens' judgment as to quantity will not 
often lead the poultryman astray. 

Egg production is a reproductive function, and 
in this respect differs from milk production in 
the dairy cow. To what extent this reproductive 
function may be injured by feeding has not been 
fully determined. It has been observed many times 



Forced Feeding for Egg Production 175 

that after a year of forced egg production the number 
of eggs laid has been somewhat decreased; that is, 
it is possible, by means of extra food and care, to 
induce fowls to lay more eggs than would be pro- 
duced under good average conditions; but it is 
not possible to keep up the highest degree of egg 
production through two or three successive years. 
It is, therefore, the practice of many poultrymen 
to keep only young birds for egg production and 
to force them for this product. When the hens 
have served a period of forced egg-laying, they 
are replaced by younger fowls. This method will 
necessitate keeping older fowls as breeding stock, 
which is in accord with the most approved practice. 

The question will naturally arise : Will the forced 
feeding of young fowls for egg production lessen 
their vitality or in any way injure their value as 
breeding stock? At the present time there is not 
sufficient accurate experimental data at hand to 
warrant a positive answer, yet it is well known 
that many of the most successful egg-producing 
flocks have been built up by persistently pursuing 
this practice for many years. 

Corn. — Of the grain foods that are usually 
supplied to farm poultry, corn has been, and still 
is, the most popular. This, no doubt, is largely 
due to the abundance of this grain and to its relative 
cheapness. If the fowls are somewhat closely con- 
fined, a corn ration is found to be somewhat too 



176 Farm Poultry 

fattening for most satisfactory results, particu- 
larly when fed to general-purpose fowls. If this 
grain is supplied to the noted egg breeds that have 
a wide range, much more satisfactory results are 
likely to be obtained. It should be the aim of the 
poultryman to feed considerable grain in such man- 
ner as will not cause the fowls to become excessively 
fat. Fat fowls, as a rule, do not lay so abundantly 
as do those in moderate flesh. When corn is fed to 
laying hens that have opportunity to take plenty 
of exercise and to secure for themselves insects 
and green food, much better results will be obtained 
than when it is fed to the same kind of fowls closely 
confined. Experiments have shown that a clear corn 
ration, given to closely confined Leghorn hens, has 
resulted in a marked decrease in egg production 
and is sometimes accompanied by feather pulling. 
Feather pulling usually indicates a faulty ration. 
The fowls have a craving for something not sup- 
plied to them, and resort to feather eating to 
obtain it. 

Experiments have clearly shown that food has 
a great influence on the color of the yolk of the egg. 
Corn will give deep yellow or highly colored yolks. 
Clear corn and water, the feeding of which would 
be considered an extreme case, will produce yolks 
which are objectionable to many consumers on 
account of the extremely high color. Fairly high- 
colored yolks are generally preferred, and a moderate 



Value of Corn as Food 177 

amount of corn in the ration can be depended 
upon to produce the desired color. 

The greatest economy in feeding fowls will 
depend largely upon the ability of the feeder to 
make the best use of corn. In supplying food for 
domesticated fowls, it should be remembered that 
three kinds of constituents should be present, in 
tolerably well-fixed proportions, if the desired 
results are to be obtained most economically. These 
constituents are mineral, nitrogenous and carbon- 
aceous. Corn is deficient in both mineral and 
nitrogenous matter. So, whenever corn forms a con- 
siderable proportion of the daily ration, these 
deficiencies should be supplied in some acceptable 
form. Animal meal, cut bone, animal charcoal 
and bone ash are all used for this purpose. 

Wheat. — Wheat is preferred to corn by many 
because it is not quite so fattening, and is, there- 
fore, a somewhat safer food in the hands of the 
unskilled feeder. On account of the low price of 
wheat in recent years, it is becoming a very com- 
mon poultry food. Wheat, when fed alone, pro- 
duces eggs having much lighter-colored yolks than 
are produced by a corn ration. Wheat alone has 
somewhat too wide a nutritive ratio for best results. 
This grain should be supplemented by some meat 
food or skimmed milk in order that the proportion 
of protein may be materially increased. Wheat 
should not form all of the grain ration of laying 



178 Farm Poultry 

hens, but when mixed with other grains it is most 
highly prized. 

Buckwheat — Buckwheat, hke wheat, when fed 
alone, has too wide a nutritive ratio and produces 
white flesh and light-colored yolks. These are 
objectionable features to most Americans, but 
in some large cities the foreign population prefers 
white skin and light-colored flesh. This grain has 
never been so popular as a poultry food in the 
United States as corn or wheat. 

Oats, — Oats are considered a most excellent 
food, and perhaps come nearer the ideal than any 
other single grain, particularly if the hull or outer 
covering is removed. This hull, being tough and 
woody and quite indigestible, is not relished by 
the fowls,' although some fowls will learn to eat 
whole oats. Oats also tend to give the fowl light- 
colored flesh and light-colored skin. On this account 
oats are not recommended for a finishing food, 
unless skin and shanks of a light color are desired. 

Linseed meal, — ^A httle linseed meal in the ground 
food serves a most valuable purpose, particularly 
at the molting period. ^'Hens having Hnseed 
meal molted nearly all at the same time, earlier 
in the season, and more rapidly.''* 

Green food in general. — ^When fowls are some- 
what closely confined in yards or pens, it will be 
necessary to supply some kind of green food in 

*Bulletin No. 39, New York Agricultural Experiment Station. 



Grains and Succulent Food 179 

order to obtain the greatest production of eggs. 
This should be given them throughout the year. 
The question of how to supply the best food at the 
least cost is one that each poultry-keeper must 
decide largely for himself. It will probably make 
very little difference what kind of green food is 
supphed, provided that it is relished by the fowls. 
If the runs or yards are large, so that fresh grass 
may be supplied to them during the summer months, 
little or no other green food will be required. 

Clover, etc. — Clover cut during the early spring 
is perhaps one of the cheapest and best of foods. 
It is nitrogenous and is readily eaten when cut 
fine in a fodder-cutter. If clover is frequently 
mowed, a good quality of green food may be obtained 
nearly aU summer, particularly in seasons of abun- 
dant rainfall. Should the supply of clover be Hmited, 
or the season prove an unusually dry one, other 
legumes may provide a satisfactory substitute. 
Alfalfa will answer the purpose weU if fed to the 
fowls in a fresh condition. A small plot, if well 
established, wiU afford a great quantity of green 
food if it is frequently mowed. Young alfalfa is 
tender and is relished by the fowls, but when it 
approaches the blossoming stage it becomes more 
woody and is not so valuable. Canada field peas 
are sometimes grown for this purpose, and the 
peas, if fed whole while in a tender and crisp 
condition, are eaten readily by the fowls. 



180 



Farm Poultry 



Beets (Mangel-wurzels). — These beets make an 
excellent green food for the winter months. As 
they are easily raised and will maintain their fresh 
condition in an ordinary root cellar during the winter 
months, they fulfil many of the requirements of 
a practical poultry food. They may be fed by 
simply splitting the root length- 
wise with a large knife. If 
given to the fowls in this form, 
they will pick out the crisp, 
fresh pulp from the cut surface. 
Root-cutters are on the market 
which cut beets in fine shreds 
somewhat resembling earth- 
worms in form. (See Fig. 57.) 
These shreds are eaten readily. 
Under ordinary conditions, 
fowls should have, once a day, 
about all the green food they 
will eat. The form in which the 
beets are offered is not impor- 
tant, provided they are consumed while in a clean, 
fresh condition. Unless the pieces of roots be small 
enough for the fowls to swallow them, large pieces like 
half a beet are preferable. When beets are fed from 
an open trough, in pieces of the size usually made 
by ordinary root-cutters, many pieces are likely to 
be scattered in the litter and more or less soiled 
before eaten, if eaten at all. Either very small, 




Fig. 57. A vegetable-cutter. 



Succulent Food 181 

or large and practically immovable pieces, are 
preferred. 

Cabbage. — Cabbage is relished by fowls, and is 
highly prized as a poultry food by many expe- 
rienced poultrymen. Cabbage, like beets, should 
be fed in a fresh condition. It is the practice of 
some poultry-keepers to suspend heads of cabbage 
within reach of the fowls and permit them to 
partake ad libitum. 

Rape, e^c— Rape, sea kale, and other plants 
of the cabbage family, which are noted for their 
crisp stems and leaves, furnish excellent green 
poultry food. Dwarf Essex rape may be sown 
in narrow rows and given horse cultivation. When 
the leaves are large enough to furnish considerable 
food, they may be picked and fed to the fowls. 
If hand-picking is objectionable, the leaves may 
be cut with a sickle or scythe. If cut a few 
inches from the ground, a second or third crop will 
often be produced from one seeding. 

Clover hay.~li green food is not at hand for 
winter feeding, a good substitute may be found 
in steamed clover hay, particularly if it is mixed 
with the soft or ground grain food. It is impor- 
tant to have this hay finely cut. If the steamer 
is not at hand, the hay may be satisfactorily treated 
by putting it in a tight vessel and pouring on boil- 
ing water sufficient to moisten all the cut hay, 
permitting it to remain tightly covered over night. 



182 



Farm Poultry 



Meat foods. — Poultrymen find it to their advan- 
tage to imitate the natural food of the fowls and 
to furnish some meat food. Fowls that are given 
a wide range in the summer time feed largely on 
insects and earthworms; but during the winter 
'_ months, and when fowls are 

confined in comparatively 
small houses and yards, it 
will be best to feed meat in 
some form. ^ ^Vegetable foods, 
even though furnishing equal 
amounts of all nutrients and 
in the proportions con- 
sidered suitable, are shown 
to be much inferior to ani- 
mal foods furnishing the 
same amounts of nutrients 
and in the same propor- 
tions."* 

Fresh bones, which may be obtained from meat- 
markets, if finely cut with bone-cutters (Figs. 58, 
59), make one of the best, if not the best, of meat 
foods for laying hens. This is also excellent for 
little chickens. Many poultrymen, however, can- 
not depend upon the local meat-markets for their 
supply, particularly during tjie warm weather. 
After the bones have become tainted they should 
be rejected as unfit for poultry food. When fresh 

*Eighth Annual Report, Mass. Hatch Experiment Station. 




Fig. 58. A bone-cutter. 



. Meat Foods and Skim Milk 183 

bones cannot be obtained, animal meal may be 
relied on for satisfactory results. Only meal that 
IS guaranteed wholesome should be procured. A 
good quaHty will generally contain about 10 per 
cent of nitrogen. This meal should be dry enough 
to keep well for several seasons if necessity requires. 
Canned meat foods, specially prepared for poul- 
try, are on the market. 
These give satisfactory re- 
sults under ordinary con- 
ditions, but are usually 
found to be somewhat 
more expensive than the 
animal meals. Some of the 
so-called poultry meat 
foods that are preserved in 
tin cans consist largely of 
liver. 

Skim milk.—Skim milk may be substituted, 
wholly or in part, for meat food without a marked 
decrease in egg production, provided the proper 
grain ration is given. In order to substitute milk 
entirely for meat, it will probably be necessary 
to give the fowls milk to drink instead of water 
and to mix soft food with the milk. If milk be 
depended upon entirely to take the place of meat, 
somewhat greater skill will probably be required 
in feeding than if a good quahty of animal meal 
is fed. 




Fig. 59. Another style of 
bone-cutter. 



184 Farm Poultry 

Evaporated milk by-products, known as gran- 
ulated milk, milk albumen and various other trade 
names, have been fed to fowls, both young and 
mature, with quite satisfactory results. These 
products are rich in protein and may often be used 
to good advantage in compounding rations. 

Grit. — It is necessary that fowls be supplied 
with some kind of grit, which is used in the giz- 
zard for grinding the food. Fowls at all ages, from 
the little chicken just hatched to the mature fowl, 
require grit if hard food is given them. When 
soft food alone is supplied, little or no grit will 
be required. During the summer months, when 
fowls have a large range, they are usually able 
to find sufficient grit for themselves. Small pieces 
of stone, cinders, etc., are eaten. Crushed lime- 
stone and crushed granite also answer the purpose 
admirably when it is necessary to supply grit arti- 
ficially. Crushed granite, on account of its exces- 
sive hardness, is more durable than pieces of softer 
material. There are many poultry-supply houses 
that keep crushed granite in various sizes, suitable 
for all kinds of poultry. Crushed oyster shells will 
also furnish material for grinding the food, although 
they are not recommended solely for this purpose. 

^Xong or sharp splinters of glass or dry bone 
should be avoided. The size of particles of grit, 
for hens, had better be larger than a kernel of wheat 
and should be smaller than a kernel of corn. An 



Grit and Lime 185 

unlimited supply of pounded glass has been attended 
with no bad result when the food and other grit 
available to the fowls contained an abundance of 
lime, but, when the food was deficient in lime and 
no other grit was attainable, hens ate an injuriously 
large amount of glass."* 

Lime. — Many experiments and also chemical 
analyses of foods and of eggs show that there is 
not sufficient lime consumed by the fowls, in ordi- 
nary poultry foods, to form the shells of eggs pro- 
duced by laying hens, particularly when they 
are producing eggs most abundantly. It is there- 
fore necessary to supply lime, in some form, to 
laying hens. Crushed oyster shells are recom- 
mended for this purpose. It is found to be sat- 
isfactory to place the crushed shells before the 
fowls in such a manner that they may eat the 
amount needed, and it is usually safe to rely on 
the judgment of the fowls in this respect. Some 
poultrymen, however, mix crushed oyster shells 
with the soft food in addition to the supply which 
should be kept before them all the time. ^The 
feeding of oyster shells during the laying sea- 
son, when they can be cheaply obtained, is recom- 
mended. One pound will contain lime enough 
for the shells of about seven dozen of eggs. Fine 
gravel containing limestone will probably as well 
supply the deficiency of lime existing in most foods, 

*Bulletin No. 38, New York Agricultural Experiment Station. 



186 Farm Poultry 

but the use of some sharper grit with it may be 
of advantage.''* 

Salt. — A httle salt is undoubtedly beneficial and 
necessary, but it is poisonous if taken in large 
quantities. Instances are frequently reported of 
fowls being injured by eating salt. They are un- 
doubtedly frequently misled in eating it, sup- 
posing that they are eating grit. Rock-salt is par- 
ticularly dangerous on this account. Some instances 
have been known of fowls being poisoned by eat- 
ing salt fish which had been carelessly thrown where 
they could gain access to it. When fowls have a 
wide range they eat grass, insects, and many other 
things that furnish salt in some quantity. This may 
explain why it is not necessary to feed salt under 
these conditions. 

Experiments made at the New York Agricultural 
Experiment Station showed that salt was not 
injurious in quantities below .063 ounce per day 
for each hen (that is, nearly one-half pint per day 
for 100 hens). The following, taken from Bulletin 
No. 39, gives results of the experiment: ^The num- 
ber of eggs laid during this trial is of no great signifi- 
cance, as it was about the end of the laying sea- 
son and the hens were old; but, inasmuch as the 
yield of eggs was twice as great from the hens 
having salt, while it was mixed with the food, it 
would appear that not enough was fed to very 

*Bulletin No. 38, New York Agricultural Experiment Station. 



Amount of Salt Necessary 187 

injuriously affect egg production. The salt used 
was ordinary barrel salt, although not coarse. 
Should rock-salt be exposed, or salt that contained 
large crystals or fragments as large as the par- 
ticles of gravel and grit eaten by hens, it would 
of course not take long for a fatal amount to be 
swallowed. For mature fowls it is probable that 
salt at the rate of one ounce per day for 100 fowls 
could, under ordinary conditions, be fed without 
injury." 

Sulfur.— Sulfur is generally recognized as a 
blood purifier, but should not be fed in any con- 
siderable quantity unless its action is well under- 
stood and precautions are taken to guard against 
any undesirable results. It is generally recognized 
that fowls take cold easily when fed sulfur. 

Pepper.— Pepper is sometimes given to fowls 
suffering from cold or in the first stages of roup. 
This is a stimulant and is sometimes given to improve 
digestion. It is the general opinion, however, 
that it is not necessary to feed it if the proper con- 
ditions are maintained. 

How to feed. — If those who have the responsi- 
bility of providing food for fowls and other stock 
will bear in mind that food is given for a two- 
fold purpose, it will help them to appreciate the 
importance of a bountiful supply of the proper 
kind. Food sustains the physical organization of 
the fowl and furnishes material for a useful prod- 



188 Farm Poultry 

uct in the form of eggs or meat, or both. It may 
also be considered largely as the basis of improve- 
ment in breeds and varieties, and is often spoken 
of as the cause, and breed as the effect. While 
this may not be strictly true in all cases, yet all 
authorities believe that food has been a most potent 
factor in the improvement of breeds — ^if not the 
chief cause. 

The profit in feeding comes from the food con- 
sumed in excess of that required for the main- 
tenance of the body. If the individual makes 
good use of the food consumed, that which is not 
required for maintenance should be directed chiefly 
toward the production of merchantable articles. 
It should not be held, however, that all of the 
food consumed in excess of that required to main- 
tain the body may be devoted to the production 
of eggs or meat. As the ration is increased, the 
work required of the fowls to digest and assimilate 
this food is also increased. So no matter whether 
the animal be a hen or a cow, the physical organ- 
ization is required to do more work on a full ration 
than on a light one, and food is required to supply 
energy for this increased work. 

There is httle danger of overfeeding laying 
hens if the proper kind of food is given. The diffi- 
culty lies in not being able to secure fowls that 
are sufficiently strong to digest and assimilate 
enough food to give the greatest profit. A strong 



Ground Food 189 

tendency toward egg laying, a vigorous consti- 
tution, and an abundance of suitable food, are 
three prime essentials for profitable egg production. 
Other things being equal, those fowls that are able 
to digest and assimilate the largest quantities 
of food will prove the most profitable. 

It is the practice of some successful poultry- 
men to feed a part of the daily grain ration ground, 
and moistened with either milk or water. It is 
held to be more economical to do a part of the 
grinding by steam or water power than to require it all 
to be done within the body of the fowl. In other words, 
water or some other power is thought to be cheaper 
than the muscular power of the laying hen. It 
is true that the hen is required to take considerable 
exercise, but this exercise does not materially aid 
in grinding the food. 

Some experiments have been made which tend 
to show that there is considerable to be gained 
in feeding ground or soft food. The following 
is taken from an experiment station pubhcation:* 
'Two pens of laying hens, one of a large and the 
other of a small breed, having a ration the grain 
of which was whole, ate during their second year 
somewhat more food at a httle greater cost than 
two similar pens having a ration in which half 
the grain was ground and moistened. 

"Cochin hens having the whole grain ration 

*BuIletin No. 106, New York Agricultural Experiment Station. 



190 Farm Poultry 

laid much better than those having the ground 
grain, although neither lot laid at a profitable 
rate during the second year. Leghorn hens having 
a ration in which the grain was whole, consumed 
on the average for two years over 20 per cent more 
food for the same egg production than did similar 
hens having half the grain in their ration ground and 
moistened. The hens having whole grain had on 
the average for two years 6.4 pounds of water-free 
food for every pound of eggs produced. Those 
having ground grain had on the average for two 
years 5.3 pounds of water-free food for every pound 
of eggs produced.'' 

Poultrymen do not agree as to the time of day 
when the soft food should be fed. Some hold that 
such food should be given in the morning, for the 
reason that the fowls have been on the perches 
during the night and have largely digested the 
food which was consumed the day before, and 
consequently have comparatively empty crops and 
digestive organs. In order that the morning meal 
may be rapidly and easily digested they feed only 
ground and moistened grain. They also hold that, 
if the fowls are to be fed three times a day, whole 
grain should be fed at noon and at night. Other 
careful observers maintain that whole grain should 
be given in the morning and that the ground food 
should be given at noon. It is probably more impor- 
tant to feed a part of the grain food in a ground 



Ground Food 191 

or soft condition than it is to feed this food at any- 
particular time of day. 

All poultrymen beheve that it is important to 
give the laying hens considerable exercise, par- 
ticularly during the winter months, and when they 
are more or less closely confined. This may be 
accomplished, in part, by requiring them to scratch 
in the litter for their grain food. 




Fig. 60. Feed trough protected by a revolving rod. 

Equal parts of corn and oats ground, mixed 
with an equal weight of wheat bran and fine mid- 
dlings, make an excellent soft food when moist- 
ened with milk or water. That is, the bran and 
fine middlings together constitute one-half the 
weight of the ration. The proportion of bran and 
fine middlings may be varied somewhat. If the 
mixture appears too sticky, less middlings and 
more bran should be used. It is usually preferred 
thoroughly wet; that is, enough milk or water 



192 Farm Poultry 

should be added to the ground grain to wet all of 
the grain after it is thoroughly stirred. It will 
be necessary to feed this food in troughs. Con- 
siderable ingenuity has been exercised in devising 
convenient troughs that will keep the food clean. 
A swinging trough, or one protected by an easy-turn- 
ing rod, as shown in the illustrations, will answer the 
purpose very well. (See Figs. 60 and 61.) Any safe 
and convenient arrangement that will prevent the 




Fig. 61. A swinging feed trough. 

fowls from perching on the sides of the troughs will 
meet the requirements of a satisfactory device. 

Many poultrymen prefer to feed animal meal 
in this soft food. From one to two pounds of animal 
meal per day should suffice for twenty-five hens, 
particularly if milk is used to moisten the ground 
grain. A httle Unseed meal, which is particularly 
valuable during the moulting period, may also 
be added. Horsemen have long known that when 
animals are shedding their coats a little linseed 
meal added to their ration hastens the shedding 
of the old coat and gives more luster to the 



Grain Rations I93 

new, and so poultrymen find that a little of this 
meal during the molting period aids in the pro- 
duction of a new coat of feathers. 

The practice of feeding the mixed ground grain 
in a dry condition has become popular with many 
poultrymen. After extended trials it has been 
found to be particularly well adapted to laying 
hens. This feed is often spoken of as "dry mash" 
and should constitute about one-third by weight 
of the total grain food consumed. This ''dry mash" 
is fed from a hopper that is kept open before the 
fowls for a part of the day only. The following 
rations are recommended by the Poultry Department 
of Cornell University: 

Grain 

Winter Ration H^g 

Wheat QQ 

Com gQ 

Oats 3Q 



Buckwheat . 



.30 



Summer Ration 

Wheat gQ 

Com 60 

Oats QQ 

Ground Feed "Dry Mash" 

Corn meal 60 

Wheat middhngs 60 

Wheat bran 30 

Alfalfa meal 10 

Oil meal 10 

Beef scrap 5O 

Salt I 

M 



194 Farm Poultry 

The whole grain should be fed once or twice a 
day and scattered in the litter during the cold 
months or whenever the fowls do not have ample 
opportunity to take exercise out-of-doors. This 
grain may be scattered in the Htter and given 
in such quantity that the fowls will eat it up clean. 
In fact, they should not be given quite all they 
want to eat. They should be made to scratch over 
the litter and pick out the last kernels. At night, 
about an hour before they go on the perches, the 
last meal of the day may be given them. This 
should be given in such quantities that it will all 
be consumed and still afford the fowls about all 
they care to eat. In other words, they should go 
on the perches at night with full crops. During 
the night they have nothing to do except to digest 
and assimilate the evening meal. 

Litter. — Straw, either cut or whole^ makes a 
good litter for poultry houses for both winter and 
summer. Hay may also be used for this purpose 
if it is more convenient or cheaper than straw. 
Buckwheat hulls are preferred by many on account 
of cheapness. In the vicinity of mills, where large 
quantities of buckwheat are floured, buckwheat 
hulls may be obtained cheaply. Shredded corn 
fodder makes satisfactory litter, although it is 
somewhat more expensive and answers the purpose 
no better than straw. During the winter months, 
the floor of the poultry house should be covered 



Food and Exercise 195 

to a depth of a few inches with some kind of Htter. 
This htter should be changed whenever it becomes 
soiled or damp. 

FEEDING FOR MEAT OR FATTENING 

Feeding fowls for meat production may prop- 
erly be discussed under two rather distinct heads 
so far as exercise is concerned: Fattening mature 
fowls, and feeding young growing fowls that are 
to be sent to the niarket when a few months old. 
Mature fowls will require little or no exercise during 
the process of fattening, while young fowls that 
are growing rapidly will require considerable exercise 
in order to keep them in a healthy and vigorous 
condition, except perhaps for a short time during 
the last of the fattening period, which is some- 
times called "the finishing.'^ 

Whenever a choice quahty of meat is to be pro- 
duced, httle or no exercise should be given for 
a few weeks immediately preceding the killing. 
When the fowl is shut up or closely confined, the 
muscles soften and the flesh becomes more tender. 
It is conceded by those who most highly prize 
tender flesh that close confinement, without exer- 
cise, greatly improves the quality. It is also true 
that fowls under these conditions take on fat rapidly 
if the close confinement is not continued too long. 
Little exercise, with plenty of pure air and an abun- 



196 Farm Poultry 

dance of soft food, are among the chief essentials 
for economical fattening. If it is desired to fatten 
fowls as quickly as possible, the ration should 
consist largely of corn. Ground oats, wheat, buck- 
wheat, and barley may also be used to some extent. 
A variety of foods undoubtedly will serve a good 
purpose in maintaining a good appetite somewhat 
longer than could be maintained with but one or 
two kinds of grain. After fowls have been kept for 
some time on soft food, whole grain cannot form 
a considerable portion of their ration without a 
loss. The organs for grinding and digesting hard 
food have been so long in disuse that they are quite 
unfitted to perform the office required of them 
when hard or whole grain is provided. 

The kind of food and the form in which it is 
to be given will depend somewhat on the kind of 
fowls. Some successful poultrymen, who make a 
specialty of young fowls of fine quality, are accus- 
tomed to feed animal meal in such proportion 
that it will form 10 to 20 per cent of the total ration. 
No one would think of using so large a propor- 
tion of animal meal in compounding a ration for 
fattening matured fowls. In one case, the object 
is to produce large quantities of tender flesh; in 
the other, to improve the quality of the flesh by 
confinement, and to induce the fowls to fatten 
readily. 

Separate the sexes. — The sexes should be sep- 



Fattening and Exercise 197 

arated before the fattening period begins. It is 
always advisable to have the individuals as nearly 
uniform as possible as regards age and size. Uneven 
flocks are not nearly so satisfactory to feed as 
uniform ones and are quite as unsatisfactory to 
sell, particularly if they are sent to market alive. 




Fig. 62. A handy crate for carrying live fowls. 

If it is desired to fatten cocks or cockerels that 
show a disposition to fight, they should be con- 
fined in coops which are provided with slat bottoms 
or bottoms made of poles near enough together 
so that the fowls cannot drop between them. These 
coops should be placed at some distance from the 
ground, so that the droppings will not foul them. 
While attempts may be made to fight, yet as one 
or both of the combatants will almost surely step 
between the slats the combat will not be carried far. 



198 Farm Poultry 

Cramming. — The English and French resort to 
the system of forced feeding, known as cramming, 
for the production of the choicest poultry for the 
London and Paris markets. The English learned 
this process from the French, and now carry it 
on to a large extent in some parts of southern Eng- 
land. The Heathfield district in Sussex County, 




Fig. 63. An English method of arranging coops, where cramming is practised. 

England, is noted for the large quantities of poul- 
try that are fattened for the London markets 
by this process. Young birds four or five months 
old are placed in coops, which are raised about 
three feet from the ground. These coops have 
slat sides and bottoms and are protected from 
the weather by a roof. Each coop is large enough 
to hold comfortably four or five birds. (See Fig. 
63.) For the first ten days after placing the fowls 



Cramming I99 

in the coops, they are fed twice a day soft food 
from httle troughs suspended within easy reach. 
After they have eaten all they will, the troughs 
are removed and no food is offered until the next 
meal. The food consists largely of groimd oats, 
with the hulls re- 
moved, and ground 
barley. To this is 
added a httle tallow 
so that each fowl 
may receive about 
a teaspoonful a day. 
The fowls are fed 
in this manner for 
about ten days, at 
the end of which 
time they will not 
eat so much on 
account of loss of 
appetite. They are 
then fattened by the 
cramming process, 




Fig. 64. An English cramming machine. 



the food being forced into the crop by means of 
a machine. Fig. 64 illustrates a cramming machine 
similar to those used in the great poultry districts of 
England. The food is mixed with milk or water to 
the consistency of thick porridge; that is, just 
about as thick as it will pour well. This is placed 
in a receptacle or hopper in the machine and is 



200 Farm Poultry 

forced through a rubber tube into the crop of the 
chicken. This tube is forced down the chicken's 
neck and a hght pressure on a lever with the foot 
forces the food, while the hand on the outside of 
the crop will detect the proper quantity. Men 
operating this machine become very skilful. A good 
operator can feed thirty dozen fowls per hour. 
This cramming process is continued for about ten 
days, when the fowls are dressed and sent to mar- 
ket. During the major part of the fattening season 
the coops are placed out-of-doors. (See Fig. 63.) 
When the weather becomes too cool, indoor coops 
are used. 

Before fowls are placed in fattening-pens they 
should be given a thorough dressing of sulfur or 
some other insecticide to kill the vermin. This is 
particularly essential, as the fowls kept in coops 
have no opportunity to combat these pests. Lay- 
ing hens and other fowls should be provided with 
dust-baths, but when fowls are placed in close 
confinement for fattening, it is not feasible to 
provide baths. Cleanliness is of the utmost impor- 
tance for these confined fowls. The coops or cages 
of fattening fowls should not be allowed to become 
filthy, neither should they be too hot in summer 
or too cool in winter. 

The French and English use oats and buck- 
wheat largely as fattening foods. They prefer 
fowls having light-colored flesh with white skin. 



Cramming and Ordinary Methods Compared 201 

Americans prefer yellow skin and flesh. Corn is, 
therefore^ to be preferred in this country as a 
fattening food to wheat, barley, or buckwheat. It 
not only produces the desired product but is the 
cheapest food that the market affords. 

Fattening by means of cramming has been tried 
in several places in this country, but without pro- 
nounced satisfactory results. The American market 
does not demand so excessively fat fowls to bring 
the highest prices as do some of the great markets 
of Europe. Some experiments tend to show that 
almost equal gains in weight may be obtained by 
ordinary methods of feeding to those gained by 
cramming. The gains in weight by the cramming 
process are due mostly to the addition of fat, while 
the ordinary methods produce more flesh. 



CHAPTER X 

INCUBATORS AND BROODERS 

Whether it is best to use incubators on farms 
where only small flocks of fowls are kept, is often 
a difficult question to decide, particularly for those 
who are familiar with only the natural method of 
incubation. As the adoption of modern methods 
includes not only the purchase of an incubator 
an(J^a brooder to care for the young fowls, but also 
carries with it a marked change in their manage- 
ment, it is a question of considerable importance. 

One frequently hears it said that if success is 
to be attained, new and ''up-to-date" appliances 
must be used, and that old methods are too slow 
for the present age. In one sense this is undoubt- 
edly true, but when seen from another viewpoint 
it becomes very misleading. It is true, and prob- 
ably always will be true, that in order to achieve 
success in any line of work one should employ 
the best means at his command. This does not 
prove, however, that because the modern incubator 
is a new invention and has proved to be a great 
advantage to many, it is best for every person 
who desires to keep fowls to purchase one'. Many 

(202) 



Incubation and Incubators 203 

incubators have been purchased that have been 
Httle used. 

INCUBATORS 

Before an incubator is purchased for the farm, 
it should be understood that it will be necessary 
to devote more time and labor to its manage- 
ment than is usually given to natural incubation. 
Even the most successful and experienced poul- 
trymen feel that there is yet much for them to 
learn, in order to accomplish the best results with 
modern appliances for hatching and rearing the 
various kinds of farm poultry. The successful 
management of incubators requires close attention 
and the best thought of the operator. In other 
words, it is a business that should be thoroughly 
learned. It should not be entered into with the idea 
that it is a simpler or easier method of hatching 
eggs than the older and rather slow method of 
natural incubation. 

If only small flocks, consisting of from fifty to 
one hundred fowls, are to be kept, probably it 
will not pay the farmer who expects but a small 
cash revenue from his fowls to attempt artificial 
incubation. Particularly is this true if his fowls 
belong to one of the so-called general-purpose 
breeds. On the other hand, if it is desired to keep 
a larger flock which consists principally or entirely 
of one of the distinctively egg breeds, it undoubt- 



204 Farm Poultry 

edly will be best in the end if the art of artificial 
incubation is thoroughly learned. The natural 
processes of incubation are too slow to meet the 
demands of the modern poultry-keeper who is 
extensively engaged in the business. When one 
undertakes to produce eggs exclusively and desires 
as many as possible in the winter, pullets will, 
of course, be largely kept for this purpose, and these 
cannot be depended on for natural incubation. 
Under these conditions, it will be advisable to resort 
to the use of incubators and brooders, by means 
of which the flock can be maintained. It would 
be quite impossible for the poultrymen of modern 
times to maintain large flocks of young birds for 
egg production and rear chickens by the natural 
method. 

ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION 

The art of hatching eggs by means of artificial 
heat has been known for a long time. Early travelers 
in Egypt gave accounts of ovens that were used 
for hatching the eggs of ducks, geese, and chickens. 
Heat was supplied by fermenting manure. Remains 
of these ovens are said to have been seen in com- 
paratively recent times. It is said that the French 
became interested in artificial incubation as early as 
the fifteenth century, but not until the latter part of 
the eighteenth century was use made of hot water as 
a means of conveying heat for artificial incubation. 



Incubation 205 

From this time until the middle of the nineteenth 
century, comparatively little advancement was made 
in the construction of incubators. Since 1870 many 
improvements have been made and a large number 
of incubators have been placed on the market. 

In the manufacture of the modern incubator, 
the idea has been largely to imitate nature. As 
the hen applies heat above the egg, so nearly all 
incubators apply heat to the egg-chamber from 
above. In natural incubation the hen provides 
a nest or shallow receptacle for the eggs, usually 
on the ground. After laying a number of eggs, 
the hen becomes ''broody'' and commences to sit, 
or incubate. At this time the underpart of the 
hen's body is more abundantly supphed with blood 
than during the laying or molting periods. In 
other words, what is known as the organ of incu- 
bation, or plexus, most fully develops at this time. 
This consists of a network of arterial blood-vessels, 
near the surface of the body, which bring greater 
heat to the eggs than would otherwise be supplied. 
In order to perfect systems of artificial incubation, 
many persons have made a close study of the natural 
method and have been led to adopt some devices 
or practices which were accidental or necessary 
to the hen, but not essential to perfect incubation. 
The fact that hens sometimes leave the nest in the 
early morning to search for food, when the grass is 
still wet with dew, and upon returning moisten 



206 Farm Poultry 

their eggs with their wet feathers, has led some to 
sprinkle the eggs at various periods during the 
process of incubation. This, however, has been 
shown to be unnecessary, except possibly in local- 
ities where the air is very dry. Poultrymen have 
also learned by close observation that, in the nest, 
particularly as the period of incubation advances, 
the eggs are arranged mostly with the large end 
uppermost or toward the outer side of the nest. This 
is probably due to the form of the nest and the 
fact that the small end of the egg is heavier in 
proportion to its size than the large end; that is, 
the center of gravity approaches the small end, 
which is, as incubation progresses, due to the devel- 
opment of the air-chamber in the large end. The 
fact that the eggs are arranged with the large end 
uppermost, has led some persons to place the eggs 
in the incubator trays in a siinilar position. With- 
out doubt, the position of the eggs does not have 
any particular influence on the hatching. 

Many tests have been made to determine the 
actual temperature of eggs when natural incubation 
is taking place. These tests show a considerable 
variation until the ninth or tenth day. Until this 
time the eggs seldom reach 100°.* Although the tem- 
perature of the fowl is usually above 106°, yet the 
temperature of the eggs is seldom raised above 103°, 
owing to the fact that heat is applied only on one side. 

♦"Incubation and Its Natural Laws," Cyphers. 



Selecting an Incubator 



207 



Selection of an incubator, —An inexperienced per- 
son should exercise the same care and judgment 
in selecting an incubator that would be exercised 
when purchasing a mowing machine or other expen- 
sive implement. It is no longer thought that one 




Fig. 65. One hundred-and-eighty-egg incubator. 

particular kind of mowing machine is far superior 
to aU others. Similarly, it may be said that there 
are many good incubators on the market. A well- 
made machine, similar to those in use by successful 
poultrymen, will probably give satisfaction after 
the business is once thoroughly learned. It should 



208 Farm Poultry 

be remembered that machines do not think, and 
that the good judgment of the operator is one of 
the most important essentials in artificial incuba- 
tion. While incubators are often placed before 
the public with somewhat flaring announcements, 




Fig. 66. One-hundred-egg incubator. 

stating that the operation of the machine is most 
simple, it should not be forgotten that the most 
successful operators are those who have given 
the business their best thought and attention 
throughout a long experience. 

While there is much to be learned about arti- 



Selecting a Place for the Incubator 209 

ficial incubation by experience, yet the beginner 
cannot afford to ignore the knowledge which has 
been gained by the experience of others. Manu- 
facturers of incubators have studied their own 
machines more or less carefully, and are therefore 
able to give some valuable information. Those who 
are about to invest in an incubator should make 
the most of the information given by manufacturers 
and others, and expect to learn many valuable 
lessons by their own experience. 

Placing the incubator. — On many farms it is not 
easy to prepare a suitable place for an incubator. 
In selecting a location four essentials should be kept 
in mind, namely, ventilation, even temperature of 
room, convenience, and freedom from danger of 
fire. Most incubators are heated by lamps, and if 
they are placed in a small room, considerable venti- 
lation will be required in order to keep the air pure. 

An even temperature is of considerable impor- 
tance, although some tests with modern incubators 
tend to show that the best hatches do not necessarily 
result from the most uniform temperature of the 
egg chamber. Uniform temperature is desired, 
however, and is easiest to maintain when the tem- 
perature of the room in which the incubator is placed 
varies least. 

It is important that the incubator be placed 
in a room in which the air is in a normal condition,— 
that is, neither too dry nor saturated with moisture. 



210 



Farm Poultry 



The ideal condition as to purity will approximate 
the air out-of-doors where there is a free circulation. 
The air should also contain at^least a moderate 
amount of moisture. The amount of moisture in the 




Fig, 67. An incubator house — Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station. 

atmosphere should control, to some extent, the 
ventilation of the incubator. It is desirable that a 
considerable proportion of the moisture of the egg 
be evaporated during the process of incubation. If 
the air is very dry, a little ventilation will be suffi- 
cient to secure the desired evaporation, while a 
moist atmosphere would require much more ventila- 
tion to secure the same result. The moist air of 
a wet cellar which contains decaying fruit and vege- 
tables is not suited to incubation. 

Whenever kerosene oil lamps are kept contin- 
ually burning for weeks at a time, as they are in 
incubators, there is some danger from fire. It is true 



Incubator Rooms 



211 



that the modern incubator lamps are well adapted 
to the purpose, but the element of danger from fire 
cannot be said to be wholly eliminated so long as 
these lamps are permitted to burn in wooden build- 
ings without the watchfulness of an attendant. 

The convenience of an incubator room is prob- 
ably one of the least of the essentials, yet it is of 
so much importance that it should not be wholly 
overlooked. Everything considered, probably a 
dry, airy cellar or half-basement will make the 
most desirable location for an incubator on the 
farm. Many incubator rooms have been con- 




FiG. 68. A small incubator building with poultry house attached. 
Cornell University. 

structed in excavations which were sufficiently 
deep to permit of most of the room being below 
the surface of the ground. (See Figs. 67 and 68.) 
This method will indoubtedly secure an even tern- 



212 Farm Poultry 

perature, but the room is likely to be ventilated 
with difficulty unless special provisions are made. 
During the warm days of spring and early summer 
it is somewhat difficult to ventilate a cellar or even 
a basement without causing drafts, which would 
interfere with the lamps and prevent them from 
burning steadily. During cold weather, when the 
air in the cellar is warmer than that outside, it will 
readily escape through ventilating flues if given 
an opportunity to do so; but whenever the outside 
air is warmer and consequently lighter than the 
cool impure air of the cellar, ventilation without 
drafts becomes a serious problem. 

Care of incubators. — Incubators should receive 
the same care and careful adjustment that are 
given to other delicate machines. The accurate 
working of the incubator will depend very largely 
on the treatment it receives from the operator 
or attendant. Whoever has charge of an incuba- 
tor should plan to give it a careful inspection at 
regular intervals. It should not be necessary, 
however, to visit an incubator oftener than twice 
a day. It is always well for the beginner to run the 
incubator for a few days before filling it with eggs, 
in order that it may be properly adjusted, and also 
to give the operator a little experience before risk- 
ing loss. 

After the machine is adjusted and the atten- 
dant has gained some knowledge of operating it, 



Operating an Incubator 213 

the eggs may be put in, although it is well to place 
them in a warm room for a few hours pre\dous, 
to prevent so great a change in the temperature of 
the incubator as would result from the use of cold 
eggs. It will be of some advantage to the beginner 
to keep temperature records of the machine by 
means of both an incubator thermometer and a 
registering thermometer. These records will some- 
times be of value in regulating the machine for 
subsequent hatches. 

Within a comparatively few years some large or 
mammoth incubators have been constructed that 
have the capacity of holding thousands of eggs 
each, at one time. These incubators have been 
operated successfully for several seasons and may 
be considered beyond the experimental stage. In 
these machines heat is furnished by means of hot- 
water pipes somewhat after the plan of hot-water- 
pipe brooding systems. 

They are too large for farm use except perhaps 
that they may be used for what is known as the 
''community system of hatching," that is, one 
machine doing the hatching for many near-by poultry 
raisers. Close proximity is not, however, wholly 
essential, as newly hatched chicks may be trans- 
ported many miles with safety. 'The community 
system of hatching" is becoming quite popular in 
some places. Many farmers prefer to purchase newly 
hatched chicks rather than care for an incubator. 




Fig. 69. House for brooders and incubators; also breeding pens — New 
York Agricultural Experiment Station. 




Fig. 70. Brooder house — Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station. 








Fig. 71. A small brooder house — Cornell University. 



Brooders 215 

BROODERS 

If artificial incubation is employed, some pro- 
visionlnustbejnadeJoiLJ±Le-£aj.£_QLth elitt s 

as soon as they jppy^ t^^ inniba^"*^^ Various kinds 
of machines have been devised for this purpose, 
which vary considerably in regard to efficiency, but 
some kind of an artificial brooder must be provided. 
From the great variety of brooders on the market 
the farmer or poultryman has an opportunity to 
make a selection according to his wants and best 
judgment. Brooders vary greatly in size, as some of 
the smaller ones accommodate no more than fifty 
chickens, while the larger ones are devised to furnish 
accommodations for many hundreds of young 
fowls. For convenience, we may separate the various 
kinds of brooders into two classes. These classes 
represent two entirely different systems of furnish- 
ing heat and providing for the comforts of the 
little chickens. One class supplies heat by means 
of hot- water pipes. (See Fig. 72.) Brooders of this 
kind are capable of extension and of providing heat 
for many hundreds of young chickens. The other 
system is represented fairly well by small portable 
brooders, which supply heat by radiation from hot 
air or from hot-water tanks. These are usually 
heated by small oil lamps or by gas jets. The pipe 
system is most extensively used by poultrymen 
who rear fowls on a somewhat extensive scale. One 



216 



Farm Poultry 



fire, producing the heat for many hundred chickens, 
gives to this system an advantage over the smaller 
brooders which require a separate lamp for each 
small flock. Oil lamps require close attention, and 
even then they are likely to give more or less trouble 



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Fig. 72, Hot-water-pipe brooders, covers of three lifted, man raising 
the fourth — New York Agricultural Experiment Station. 

by some imperfection in the burner or deposit 
of soot or carbon in some parts of the flue, which 
may lead to overheating and, in some cases, may 
produce disastrous results. Brooders, and even 
poultry houses, have been set on fire by careless 
or improper handling of brooder lamps. 

Some of the most important requisites of a good 
brooder may be enumerated as follows: 



Essentials of a Good Brooder 217 

1. Capable of maintaining a proper tempera- 

ture. 

2. Be easily cleaned. 

3. Proyide good ventilation. 

4. Of such form that all the chickens may readily 

be seen. 

5. Must be dry. 

6. Economical of heat. 

7. Easy of construction. 

(1) A satisfactory brooder must maintain a 
proper temperature for delicate little chickens. 
It will be necessary to maintain an even temper- 
ature, from 90° to 100°, for the first week. After 
that a somewhat lower temperature will be required. 
Breeds of fowls that feather early in life do not 
require so high a temperature in the brooder after 
two or three weeks. The temperature should always 
be so high that the chickens are not inclined to 
huddle together to keep warm. Huddhng indicates 
that the temperature is too low for best results. 
The amateur poultryman finds it difficult to over- 
come the tendency toward bowel disorders in Httle 
chickens. One of the potent causes of these dis- 
orders is a cold brooder or frequent chills. 

(2) A brooder should be easily cleaned. There 
are several reasons for this. The labor of cleaning 
is an important item. The time occupied is fre- 
quently of considerable importance, and then, if 
the brooder is not readily cleaned, it is much more 



218 



Farm Poultry 



likely to be neglected, particularly during the 
busiest seasons of the year. A brooder should be so 
constructed that it may be swept clean, preferably 
with an ordinary broom. The floor should be kept 




Fig. 73. An out-of-door brooder 

littered, so that all the manure may be readily 
swept out. As filth and dampness are two great 
causes of failure with the amateur poultryman, it 
is of the greatest importance that poultry houses 
and brooders be kept as clean as possible. 

(3) The air in a brooder will become foul if 
not changed frequently. Usually, when sufficient 
heat is supplied to give proper temperature, venti- 
lation is also secured; but occasionally the source 
of heat is barely sufficient to maintain the required 
temperature with the least possible ventilation. 
Then, in order to keep the chickens warm, ventila- 
tion must be cut off. Pure air should be suppHed at 
all times. It should be remembered that little chick- 



Essentials of a Good Brooder 



219 



ens have a high temperature, that they breathe 
rapidly, and that the supply of pure air is of the 
greatest importance to them. 

(4) It is important to have the brooder so arranged 
that all the chickens may readily be seen by the 
attendant. If dark and inconvenient corners are 
permitted to exist, weak chickens find these nooks 
a place of refuge, and may escape the attention of 
the attendant. As it is important that all of the 
chickens be seen at each feeding, the ease of thorough 
inspection is of considerable importance in the 
care of brooders. 

(5) A brooder must be dry. At no time in the 
life of a hen is she so sensitive to moisture as in 




Fig. 74. An out-of-door brooder. 



the early stages of her existence. All parts of the 
brooder should be kept dry and clean. Whenever 
the floor of the brooder becomes moist, some means 
should be taken at once to correct the evil. There 



220 Farm Poidlry 

should be sufficient bottom heat or enough heat near 
the floor to keep it dry. Too much bottom heat 
is objected to by many poultrymen. A somewhat 
popular belief is held that bottom heat, if consider- 
able, is likely to produce what is known as ^'leg 
weakness." 

(6) It is of some importance to have a brooder 
that is economical of heat, or, in other words, one 
that makes good use of the fuel consumed. The 
provision of fuel is an item of expense. 

(7) It is of considerable importance that the 
brooder be simply constructed. Machines that are 
more or less difficult to build are necessarily more 
expensive than those that are easy of construction. 
Then, too, some parts of the appliance may require 
renewal, and if the brooder is easy of construction 
the farmer or poultryman may readily perform the 
labor which otherwise would require an additional 
expense in sending the machine to the factory for 
repairs. 

The amateur should bear in mind that it is 
necessary for each person to learn the business for 
himself by study and experience, that there are no 
hard and fast rules for the selection and operation 
of the various kinds of brooders. One person may 
succeed well with a brooder that would prove 
unsatisfactory in the hands of another. One per- 
son may learn how best to operate a particular 
machine, and, from his study of the condition of 



Brooders 221 

the brooder and chickens, soon learn how to remedy 
the most serious difficulties, whereas another, 
through a lack of sufficient knowledge of that 
particular brooder, would fail to secure the essen- 
tials in rearing young fowls. There are many brood- 
ers that are capable of producing good results if the 




Fig. 75. Gasoline-heated, colony brooder houses — Cornell University. 

proper attention be given them; but the manner of 
caring for the young, which find in them a home, 
is of greater relative importance than the particular 
construction of the machine. 

Home-made brooders. — It is often desirable and 
sometimes necessary to construct at home a con- 
siderable portion of the appliances used in the 
modern poultry yard. Sometimes material is at 



222 



Farm Poultry 



hand that may be turned to good advantage in the 
construction of machines. It sometimes happens 
that more chickens are hatched than were provided 
for, and an extra brooder is needed for the emergency. 
Satisfactory brooders' may be made at home, at 
a small expense for materials, by any one who is 
able to work well with the most common of car- 
penters' tools. Drygoods boxes may be utilized to 




Fig. 76. A home-made brooder in cross-section. 

good advantage. If a part of a large drygoods box 
is placed bottom upwards so that the bottom will 
form a level floor about a foot from the ground, a 
good foundation for a cheap brooder is established. 
In the center of this a square or circular opening 
is cut, into which is fitted a box of tin which is also 
placed bottom up. A straight-sided tin bucket or 
pail may be used instead of the tin box. If the 
former is used, a circular opening should be made 
to fit the pail. In the bottom of this pail (which is 
bottom upwards) should be fitted • a small tube 



Home-made Brooders 223 

of iron or tin to carry off the smoke and gases from 
the lamp which is placed underneath. On the top 
of the tin box or pail is placed a cover of Hght boards 
which supports woolen or felt curtains. The illus- 
tration (Fig. 76), which shows an indoor brooder in 
cross section, may aid in the proper understanding 
of this device. 

The chickens should be confined by a board 
railing for several days, after which they may be 
given an opportunity to take more exercise than 
would be permitted within the brooder. Little 
chickens should have a chance to return to the 
brooder whenever they desire to do so. The illus- 
tration shows a board railing, in section, which will 
effectually confine the chickens until they require 
more exercise than the brooder will permit. There 
is also shown an approach which will provide a 
means by which the chicks may easily enter and 
leave the brooder, provided a suitable opening be 
made in the board railing. The curtains mentioned 
above prevent the heat from escaping, and provide 
warm, comfortable compartments for the chicks. 

One objection to indoor lamp brooders is the diffi- 
culty in carrying off the fumes from the lamp. If 
possible, some provision should be made to carry 
the vitiated air and fumes from the lamp outside 
the brooder and brooder house. A little ingenuity 
on the part of the poultryman is sometimes required 
to accomplish this object. 



CHAPTER XI 

FEEDING AND CABE OF LITTLE CHICKENS 

In rearing fowls it will be found that the atten- 
tion given to little chickens and the manner of feed- 
ing them are of the greatest importance. While it 
is difficult and probably impossible to discuss satis- 
factorily care and feeding separately, yet it may 
safely be said that care and attention are quite as 
important as the selection of food. 

One successful poul-try-feeder may find it to 
his advantage to make use of certain foods, while 
these same foods in the hands of others may be 
so misused that disappointment will surely result. 
To further illustrate, one successful poultryman 
may insist that comparatively little of certain 
kinds of grains should be fed. Other successful 
feeders may make a most satisfactory use of these 
objectionable grains. It is for each one to learn for 
himself how to feed to the best advantage those 
foods which are at hand, and to learn how to sup- 
plement them with others if they do not form the 
desired combination of themselves. In preparing 
food for little chickens, it will be well to remember 
that they are delicate organisms and require careful 

(224) 



Food for Little Chickens 225 

handling and suitable food, particularly during the 
first few days of their existence, or until they become 
strong enough to seek food for themselves. 

FOOD 

The Httle chickens will require no food for the 
first twenty-four or forty-eight hours after hatching. 
A mistake is often made in feeding them frequently 
before the system requires food. The close observer 
will readily determine by the action of the chickens 
when food is required. The first food should be of 
such a character that it may be readily digested 
without the aid of grit; consequently, soft food is 
preferred. Stale bread thoroughly moistened with 
milk makes a most excellent food for newly hatched 
chickens. An experienced poultryman will recognize 
that there is no best food for little chickens. There 
are many good kinds, if fed judiciously. Again, 
it may be said that the manner of feeding is of the 
utmost importance, and that the attendant who 
fails to study closely the condition and wants of the 
Httle chickens will fail to reach the best results. 
While stale bread dipped in milk makes an excellent 
food, yet it may be so treated as to be quite unfit 
for use. It should be allowed to drain, after dipping, 
so that the bread is only thoroughly moistened. In 
this condition, if finely crumbled, it makes a most 
satisfactory food. On the other hand, bread that 



226 Farm Poultry 

is fresh and not perfectly baked will be quite too 
sloppy, if saturated with milk. Ground grain may be 
mixed with milk and fed to good advantage. If this 
grain is mixed some time before it is to be given, 
it will become more thoroughly soaked and will be in 
a much softer condition than if fed immediately after 
preparing. This is thought to be of considerable 
importance by persons who have had years of ex- 
perience in the preparation of food for little chick- 
ens. Sour milk is thought by many of the most 
successful poultry-raisers to be equally as desirable 
as sweet milk. Some, however, prefer to use chiefly 
the curd of sour milk in mixing the soft food. 

The following rations are recommended for young 
chickens: 

Mixture No. 1* Lbs. 

Rolled oats 8 

Bread crumbs or cracker waste . 8 

Sifted beef scrap (best grade) 2 

Bone meal 1 

Mixture No. 2* 

Wheat (cracked) 3 

Cracked corn (fine) 2 

Pinhead oatmeal 1 

Mixture No. 3* 

Wheat bran 3 

Corn meal 3 

Wheat middlings 3. 

Beef scrap (best grade) 3 

Bone meal 1 

*CornelI University leaflet, "Cornell Ration for Chick Feeding." 



Foods for Little Chickens 227 

Mixture No. 1 should be moistened with sour 
skimmed milk and will prove a most satisfactory 
food for the first five or six days. Mixture No. 3 is 
best fed as a dry mash in a hopper and is a suitable 
food to keep constantly before the chicks until 
they are pretty well grown. No. 2 mixture is suit- 
able for feeding in light fitter after about the first 
week. 

It is not best to give the little chick all it can 
possibly eat and then require it to become ravenously 
hungry before the next feeding. Under natural 
conditions the young chickens are seeking food dur- 
ing a large portion of the day and at no time are 
they completely gorged. A little food at frequent 
intervals undoubtedly is best. If they are given food 
in suitable quantities, feeding from five to seven 
times per day will be found to be none too often 
for the first five or six days. After this time it will 
not be necessary to feed more than three times a 
day- if they have access to the dry mash in the 
hopper at all times. Finely shredded green food and 
charcoal are also necessary. Some authorities prefer 
to scatter the grit and charcoal over the food. 

The following is quoted from an experiment 
station publication:* ^^If skim milk be added to the 
ration fed to young chickens it will increase the 
consumption of other foods given. The great increase 

♦Summary of Bulletin No. 71, Purdue University Agricultural 
Experiment Station. 



228 Farm Poultry 

in average gain was coincident with the periods when 
the greatest amount of skim milk was consumed. 
Skim milk is especially valuable as a food for young 
chickens during the hot dry weather; and becomes 
of less importance as the chickens grow older and 
the weather becomes cooler." 

Ground grain is preferred to whole or cracked 
grain, and should constitute the chief part of the 
daily ration. Practical poultrymen and experi- 
menters are fairly well agreed on this point. The 
following illustrates:* ''A ration consisting mostly 
of ordinary ground grain foods and containing no 
whole grain was more profitably fed to chicks than 
another ration consisting mostly of whole grain 
and containing no ground grain. ... In every 
trial more food was eaten when the ground grain 
was fed than when the whole grain was fed." 

In addition to the grain given to the chickens, 
it will be necessary to provide some animal food. 
Various mixtures of grain foods have been com- 
pared to mixtures of grain and animal meal, but the 
latter have given the better results. The domesti- 
cated hen seems to thrive best, in all stages of exist- 
ence, on a ration which consists in part of animal 
food. '^A ration in which about two-fifths of the 
protein was supplied by animal food was much 
more profitably fed to chicks than another ration 
supplying an equal amount of protein, mostly from 

♦Bulletin No. 126, New York Agricultural Experiment Station. 



Feeding Little Chickens 229 

vegetable sources, but supplemented by skim milk 
curd."* 

Experiments have demonstrated clearly that 
the ordinary grain foods, as usually fed, do not 
contain sufficient ash to permit the most rapid 
development of the young. The following briefly 
states the results of somewhat extended experi- 
ments at the New York Agricultural Experiment 
Station :t "Of two rations which contained prac- 
tically the same proportions of the ordinarily con- 
sidered groups of constituents, but different amounts 
of mineral matter, the one wholly of vegetable origin 
proved much inferior for growing chicks to the 
other ration, higher in ash content, containing 
animal food. When the deficiency of mineral matter 
was made good by the addition of bone ash, the vege- 
table food ration for chicks equaled or somewhat 
surpassed in efficiency the corresponding ration 
in which three-eighths of the protein was derived 
from animal food." 

Hard-boiled eggs mixed with ground grain, and 
perhaps a Httle milk, make a most excellent food. 
This is frequently fed with satisfactory results dur- 
ing the first few days of the chick's existence. Infer- 
tile eggs which are taken out of the incubator when- 
ever the eggs are tested, if properly prepared, will 
furnish an excellent food for little chickens. These 

*Bulletin No. 149, New York Agricultural Experiment Station. 
tSummary of Bulletin No. 171. 



230 Farm Poultry 

boiled eggs should be crumbled or chopped fine and 
may be fed alone or mixed with softened ground 
grain. 

Corn may form a considerable portion of the 
ration for young fowls that are growing rapidly. 
Granulated oats make an excellent food for chick- 
ens after they are several days old. These oats 
may be placed in receptacles of such a character 
that the food may be readily accessible at all times 
and yet will not be soiled by tramping. 

1 

EXERCISE 

It is of the utmost importance to provide a run 
or yard for young chickens. They require much 
exercise, and unless provision is made for this, 
it cannot be expected that the most satisfactory 
growth and development will be made. 

The young of all animals are active and will 
take constant exercise if opportunity is given. 
Particularly is this true of the young of fowls. 
They are not only inclined to range freely on their 
own account, but under natural conditions the 
mother, wandering from place to place in search 
of food, compels the young to take a greater amount 
of daily exercise than they would if left wholly to 
themselves. Perhaps the reader, if he is a farmer, 
will be surprised to recall how far from home he 
has seen the old hen with her brood of little chicks. 



Care of Little Chickens 231 

It is essential also that they be kept in a dry 
place, either on a floor or a dry soil. Young chickens 
should never be permitted to run on moist land, 
particularly if it is allowed to become filthy. Many 
chickens that are hardy when kept dry prove tender 
when compelled to occupy quarters that are more 




Fig. 77. Chicken coop — Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station. 

or less damp. There are several breeds of poultr}' 
that cannot endure dampness, though hardy to a 
satisfactory degree when provided with warm and 
dry quarters. 

It should be borne in mind that the attendant 
or feeder is responsible for the health and general 
condition of the chickens, quite as much as is the 



232 Farm Poultry 

food which they consume. Skilful feeders, by not- 
ing carefully the wants and conditions of the chick- 
ens as regards thrift, are able to determine how 
best to feed and to accomplish satisfactory results 
with food that would prove entirely unsatisfactory 
with a little neglect or indifference on the part of 
the feeder. 

FEEDING-TROUGHS 

It is necessary to provide feeding-troughs for 
little chickens in order to prevent them from tramp- 
ing on the food; for if the food be placed on the 
floor of the brooder or poultry house, it soon becomes 




Fig. 78. A feeding-trough for little chickens. 

soiled and unfit for consumption. A simple and effi- 
cient feeding-trough may be made by tacking a strip 
of tin about 33^ inches wide along the edge of a 
half -inch board so that the tin projects about an 
inch and a half on either side of the board. Bend 
the tin so as to form a shallow trough on each side 
of the board, then fasten the board to blocks which 
will hold it edgewise and raise it from one to two 
inches from the floor. (See Fig. 78.) The trough 



Food and Grit 233 

may be from one to three feet long. It is within easy 
reach of the chickens and so narrow that they cannot 
stand upon the edges. Food placed in such feeding 
troughs may be kept clean until wholly consumed. 
Small feeding troughs have been supplanted to a 




Fig. 79. A movable coop, showing a good device. 

large extent by dry-feed hoppers for such food as 
will work well in hoppers. It is often desirable, 
however, to feed moistened food that can be best 
placed before the chickens in little troughs. 



GRIT 



Grit should be placed before chickens not later 
than the second day after they commence to eat. 
Coarse sand will answer the purpose very well for 
young chickens. Finely crushed stone or pulver- 
ized cinders will suffice if coarse sand or prepared 



234 Farm Poultry . 

grit is not at hand. As nature does not provide 
grit in the digestive organs of the newly hatched 
chicken, it is necessary to furnish this grit in order 
that the chick may grind its first hard food. As 
nature provides nourishment for a chicken for a 
day or two after it is hatched, grit is not absolutely 
needed until the third or fourth day, provided the 
first food is quite soft. As the chick becomes older, 
coarser grit is required and its supply should never 
be neglected. 

DRINKING-FOUNTAINS 

One of the difficult problems that the amateur 
poultryman has to solve is how best to keep pure 
drinking-water continually before the little chickens. 
Small chickens drink frequently, and as their little 
beaks are sometimes more or less loaded with soft 
food, which is deposited in the drinking-fountain 
whenever the beak becomes wet, the question of 
how to keep the water pure is not an easy one to 
solve. As it is necessary to keep the drinking-foun- 
tain at a warm temperature, it soon becomes tainted 
and, unless given frequent attention, will emit a 
disagreeable odor. This condition must not be 
allowed to exist, for all food and water consumed 
by the fowls, particularly the young, should be free 
from taint. There is no greater stumbling block 
to the novice than the lack of cleanliness. 

Many automatic fountains will keep water before 



Drinking Fountains 235 

the chickens, but they are frequently difficult to 
cleanse if they once become tainted. Nothing less 
than frequent scalding with steam or boiling water 
will answer the purpose. Any drinking-fountain 
that is constructed of glass, that will not bear such 
temperatures, is objectionable. Tin or earthenware 




Fig. 80. Summer house for cockerels. 
New York State College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N. Y. 

ft 

is preferred on account of the ease of cleansing. A 
drinking-fountain made on the same principle as 
the one with a revolving reservoir, described in a 
previous chapter (see Fig. 47) , will prove very satis- 
factory. An empty tomato can and a shallow saucer 
will answer every purpose. These may be readily 
cleansed and are convenient. 



236 



Farm Poultry 
BROODERS 



Brooders require constant care to keep them 
clean and to see that no part becomes wet, which 
will frequently happen if water-dishes are placed 
within the machine. Cleanliness must be insisted 
on. The temperature at which the brooder should 




Fig. 81. A home-made outdoor dry-feed hopper. 

be kept will depend largely upon the age of the 
chickens. It should be warm enough so that the 
chickens will not huddle together to keep warm, 
and, of course, should be cool enough for the greatest 
comfort. Bowel disorders are frequently caused by 
exposure and improper brooder temperatures. The 
person who makes his chickens the most comfortable 
will probably succeed best with the brooder. 



Care of Brooders 237 

The following conclusions in regard to improper 
feeding and brooder conditions are given by the 
Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station:* 
'Tost-mortem examination showed that the diseases 
may be classified under four heads. Disorders 
ascribable : 

''A. To heredity or to envu-onment during period 
of incubation. (Recent experiments have 
demonstrated that successive alternate 
periods of heat and cold during incubation 
are responsible for a very large proportion 
of abnormahties.) Thirty-three per cent 
of the chicks examined showed more or 
less trouble under this head. 
''B. To mechanical causes, e. g., overcrowding 
in the brooders, resulting in death by 
suffocation, trampling, etc. 
''C. To imperfect sanitation, lack of ventilation, 
sunHght, etc.; e. g., tuberculosis flourishes 
in dark, poorly ventilated brooders. Fif- 
teen and one-tenth per cent of the post- 
mortems showed more or less evidence of 
tuberculosis. 
''D. To improperly balanced ration, i. e., im- 
proper feeding. For the continued main- 
tenance of health there must be a definite 
proportion between the amount of carbo- 
hydrates (starch, sugar, etc.), fats, and the 

♦Bulletin No. 61, p. 53. 



238 Farm Poultry 

nitrogen-CGntaining proteins. A ration 
wholly vegetable is almost certain to con- 
tain a too low percentage of nitrogen, 
while a ration exclusively animal is very 
sure to be deficient in carbohydrates. As 
a result of improper food, digestive dis- 
orders soon appear, either in the liver and 
gall-bladder, or in the intestines. Of the 
chicks examined, 75.7 per cent had abnor- 
mal hvers; 38.6 per cent had various forms 
of intestinal disorders." 
^^In conclusion, special attention is called to the 
following facts, confirmed by experiments:* 

'^1. Careful external and internal examination 
(such as any one can readily make) of the dead 
chick will usually disclose the cause of death. The 
necessary remedies are usually not difficult to find. 
'^2. Death from overcrowding, suffocation and 
trampling can be readily corrected. It is more 
frequent than is generally suspected. 

'^3. For guarding against tuberculosis, give the 
interior of the brooders all the sun and air pos- 
sible on pleasant days. 

^'4. Trouble of the liver and gall-bladder are 
usually easily recognizable from the green stains. 
For correcting this, feed more animal food. The 
use of the proper proportion of animal food will 
pay a handsome profit through decreased mortality 

*Bulletin No. 61, Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station, p. 59. 



Causes of Death 239 

and increased weight of the chicks. In feeding 
bear in mind that chicks in a state of nature spend 
practically all their waking hours in search of food, 
and that they do not fill their crops in ten minutes 
every two hours. Feeding should be, as far as the 
time of the attendant renders profitable, a con- 
tinuous process, but by no means a continuous gorge. 

''5. Diarrhoea, etc., frequently result from feed- 
ing a too large proportion of animal food, and are 
often brought on by cold, exposure, etc. 

^^6. If the yolk is present in considerable quan- 
tity in chicks a week old, or if more than 1 or 2 
per cent of deformed chicks appears, look to the 
better regulation of the incubators or to the health 
of the breeding-pens." 



CHAPTER XII 

CAPONS AND BROILERS 

There is a question in the minds of many per- 
sons whether caponizing is really as profitable as 
it is often represented to be. The profits of capon 
rearing that are frequently given in captivating 
accounts are often very misleading. While it is 
true that these most favorable reports are well 
within the range of possibilities, yet many of them 
far exceed the probable returns of earnest and well- 
directed efforts of beginners. One of the first ques- 
tions which should be decided as regards capon 
rearing is the profit which this enterprise will 
probably yield; — in other words, will caponizing 
pay? Without doubt this question should be an- 
swered both affirmatively and negatively. When 
capon rearing is compared with some of the most 
productive lines of poultry work conducted at this 
time by the most skilful operators, it probably will 
not make a very favorable showing. On the other 
hand, the profits from fine capons which have been 
prepared by the expert will undoubtedly compare 
favorably with results obtained in other directions. 
If the prices which capons bring are to be compared 

(240) 



Capons and Broilers 241 

with those of the choicest broilers, one would be 
led to beHeve that broiler raising would be the more 
profitable. 

It should be borne in mind, however, that it is 
quite possible to make good capons of fowls that 
at no time in their existence would have sold for 
the highest prices as broilers. Broiler raising, like the 
rearing of early or ''hothouse" lambs, requires great 
skill. Those who do not understand how to secure 
these choice products, may make good capons from 
fowls that would not answer the requirements of 
the higher priced broilers. 

In rearing broilers, it is impossible to bring all 
the birds to the desked condition— that is, all will 
not be so good as the best. The poorer birds may 
be retained on the farm and prepared for the capon 
market, provided the breed of fowls selected for 
broiler rearing will mature birds sufficiently large to 
make good capons. It will not pay to attempt to 
produce capons from small fowls. \\Tien the profits 
which choice capons bring are compared with the 
profits of rearing mature fowls that are sold for 
meat, a most excellent showing will be made. The 
question, then, whether capons will pay, depends 
largely on the point of view. Sometimes capons 
undoubtedly can be made to pay well, and the rear- 
ing of them should be encouraged under certain 
conditions. 

To those who have had no experience in the rear- 



242 Farm Poultry 

ing of capons, and to whom, perhaps, the word 
is almost a new one, it may be stated that they 
are castrated males. The capon bears the same 
relation to the cock as the steer does to the bull 
or the wether to the ram. The operation is per- 
formed in order that the fowls may grow larger, 
become more gentle, and fatten more readily than 
they would otherwise. The operation, if success- 
fully performed, changes the nature of the indivi- 
vidual to a marked degree. The change brought 
about by this operation on the fowls is quite as 
great as that caused by a similar operation upon 
other classes of farm stock, if not even greater than 
that. The birds lose their activity, which is a potent 
factor in easy fattening. They grow considerably 
larger than they otherwise would and appear much 
more gentle and consequently thrive well in close 
confinement. 

As the bodies of capons are large, their heads 
appear somewhat out of proportion, — that is, the 
comb and wattles do not develop, which makes the 
head appear small. The capon never crows and 
loses the voice of the male and also most of the 
masculine characteristics except size. The flesh 
of capons is especially prized. The muscles are 
tender, the birds fatten readily, and their large 
size makes them especially desirable for certain 
methods of cooking. The largest capons sell for 
the highest price. In order to reach the highest 



Capons 



243 



profit, capons should be large and fat and not more 
than ten or eleven months of age. If they are kept 
until a later age, the meat becomes somewhat 
coarse and is not so desirable. While early chickens 




Fig. 82. A caponizing set. 

are most highly prized for broilers, the later ones may 
be turned to a good account for the capon market. 
The question is sometimes asked, with all serious- 
ness, whether the operation is not sufficiently pain- 
ful to condemn the practice. Without doubt con- 
siderable pain is involved, but no more 'than in 
a similar operation which is performed so gener- 



244 Farm Poultry 

ally on other classes of farm stock, and the pain 
is probably less than in those cases. 

That capons are regularly quoted in markets 
of many cities shows that there is sufficient demand 
for them to warrant poultrymen in giving consider- 
able attention to their production, particularly 
if they are so situated that fowls which would other- 
wise bring low prices can be turned to this use to 
a good advantage. The regular quotations also 
indicate that a considerable number of poultrymen 
find capon rearing a fairly profitable branch of the 
poultry business. Were this not true, poultrymen 
would cease to rear them and their presence in the 
markets of so many cities would be unknown. 

It is not difficult to learn how to perform success- 
fully the operation of caponizing fowls of the proper 
age, but some persons are naturally more deft in 
finger manipulation than others and are able to 
perform dehcate operations neatly and rapidly. 
In districts in which large numbers of capons are 
reared, professionals are usually engaged by capon 
rearers to perform operations on large numbers of 
fowls at one time. They go about the country 
doing the work more satisfactorily and more rapidly 
than the owners could do it for themselves, and, as 
they have become so expert, they are enabled to 
perform the operation for a very small sum and still 
make good wages. From two to four cents per head 
usually pays for a skilful operator. Any one who is 



Caponizing 245 

at all deft may perform the work by merely follow- 
ing the directions furnished by the manufacturers of 
caponizing instruments. Comparatively few farm- 
ers, however, will become expert if they operate 
only upon their own fowls. ^^ While the novice might, 
and probably would, spend a half hour upon the first 
bird, and then possibly produce a slip, experts will 
do scores each hour during the whole day. One 
very sure and rapid worker caponized one bird per 
minute for three hours in succession, his day's work 
being 450, of which not one per cent died."* 

Not all breeds of fowls are equally well suited 
to the production of capons. The Black Langshans 
are generally especially recommended for this 
purpose. The birds of this breed are large and 
are easily operated upon. In a somewhat general 
way it may be said that the meat breeds and the 
general-purpose fowls are suitable for producing 
capons. It is held by some that the Brahmas 
though large are not easily operated upon. Crosses 
between the Light Brahma and the White Plymouth 
Rocks or the White Wyandottes are highly prized. 
The Cornish Indian Game is sometimes used to 
cross on other large fowls, as it improves the breast 
meat without decreasing the size. Commission men 
do not state that there is much, if any, difference in 
the value of capons from the different breeds of 
fowls; that is, it is not recognized that some breeds 

♦"Pocket Money Poultry," Norys, page 171. 



.246 Farm Poultry 

produce capons decidedly superior to those of other 
breeds. Large-sized birds that are fat bring the 
highest prices. 

It is recommended that the fowls should be 
operated upon when they, have attained the weight 
of about two pounds. Some poultrymen recom- 
mend that the operation be performed a little 
earher in life, while others are very successful in 
operating upon birds that are somewhat older. 
Without doubt the best time will depend somewhat 
upon the condition of the bird. If the fowls are 
growthy and thin, a somewhat lighter weight will 
suffice than if the fowls are very plump. In a general 
way, authorities on caponizing recommend that the 
operation be performed when the fowls are from IJ^ 
to 2J^ pounds in weight. 

Sometimes birds of the larger breeds may be 
operated upon when 3 pounds in weight or even 
larger, but they should never be over six months 
old. It is more difficult to operate on young, small 
birds on account of lack of room to perform the 
operation. On the other hand, as the birds become 
older the testacies increase in size and the blood- 
vessels supplying these organs are more likely to 
be ruptured. 

Chickens to be operated upon should be fasted 
from twelve to twenty-four hours, and in some 
cases even forty-eight hours is recommended. It 
is suggested not only to withhold food, but, during 



Preparation for Caponizing 



247 



a considerable period of the fasting, to withhold 
water as well. Fowls are fasted in order to empty 
thig digestive organs and to deplete somewhat the 
quantity of blood, and thereby reduce the danger of 
rupturing the blood-vessels while performing the 
operation. One great danger is in the Hability of 
rupturing the arteries which are situated very near 
the organs that are to be removed. When it is borne 
in mind that the abdominal cavity is opened and 
that the intestines are 
pushed aside in order to 
perform the operation 
successfully, it will 
readily be seen how es- 
sential it is to have the 
bowels as nearly empty 
as possible, and, at the 
same time, to deplete 
the quantity of blood in the blood-vessels so far as 
the good health of the fowl will permit. One objec- 
tion that is frequently made to caponizing is, that 
good hght is required, particularly if the operator is 
not the most skilled. Clear days when the sun shines 
brightly are preferred. It frequently happens that 
fowls may be fasted for the operation and cloudy 
weather prevail. This should be sufficient cause to 
prevent the novice from proceeding further until 
clear weather comes. In such an event, it will be 
necessary to keep the fowls on very Hght rations 




Fig. 83. Caponizing table, showing cords 
and weights used to hold the fowls. 



248 Farm Poultry 

of soft food until the promise of clear weather is 
near at hand. Experienced operators are not hin- 
dered so much by improper Hght as are the inex- 
perienced, yet all deem the brightest light desirable. 

The head-reflector used by physicians in per- 
forming delicate operations upon the throat, is 
used by some operators, and is found to work suc- 
cessfully with artificial light. Expert operators 
are enabled to work with the reflector with almost 
as much ease and satisfaction as in bright sunlight. 
This reflector consists of a mirror fastened to the 
head by a band in such a manner that the mirror 
can be turned to any desired angle to throw the 
light into the cavity, and to show the location of the 
organs to be removed, as well as the place of the 
near-by veins and arteries. 

When to make capons and the time to sell. — 
The production of capons for market should be 
controlled largely by the market conditions. As 
capons sell best from soon after Christmas until the 
last of March or middle of April, they should be 
ready for market at this time. It takes about ten 
months to prepare properly a capon for market, and 
they should not be put on the market when over 
a year old. There is not much difference as to the 
seasons of the year so far as the effects of the opera- 
tion are concerned. Cockerels hatched in May 
or June, especially of the early maturing varie- 
ties, like Plymouth Rocks or Wyandottes, or even 



How to Caponize 249 

th'^se crossed on Brahmas or Langshans, castrated 
in September or October, should find ready sale 
during the high market season. 

Farmers who have cheap food, who are far from 
shipping points, and therefore kill and ship all at 
one time in cold weather, might profitably make 
capons of all young cocks. Those who keep birds 
until maturity for their own table should do the same. 

The operation. — If one desires to attempt the 
operation without having received personal instruc- 
tion, he will do well to commence on a fowl that has 
just been killed for this purpose. He may then take 
as much time as he desires to study the location, 
attachment, and removal of the organs without 
inflicting torture on the fowl. It will be best, how- 
ever, to. hold the fowl, and to perform the operation 
as though he were alive. The fowl should be held 
on its side on a table, box or end of barrel and secured 
by passing a strong cord around its shanks and 
another around both wings close to the shoulder 
joints. These cords may be held in place by weights 
as shown in the illustration. Remove a few feathers 
on the side over the last two ribs and moisten the 
others so they will not interfere with the operation. 
Make an incision well toward the back between the 
last two ribs, this may be about an inch and a half 
long and should be kept open by means of a spreader 
provided for this purpose. The lining membrane 
of the abdominal cavity should now be hooked and 



250 Farm Poultry 

cut through or torn. The intestines may be pushed 
away from the back and the testacies readily seen. 
These may be removed by proper instruments. The 
manufacturers of caponizing instruments furnish 
instruments for the various parts of the operation and 
accompany them with explicit instructions for the 
beginner. , 

Preparing capons for market. — "Capons, like 
other fowls, should be fasted twenty-four hours 
before killing, that the crop may be empty and 
therefore need not be removed. The head, the 
distinguishing mark of a capon, has a particularly 
long and pointed appearance and should always be 
left on. They should be bled by cutting inside the 
mouth or throat. The neck and saddle feathers are 
unusually large and fine; these and the small size 
of the tail distinguish a capon from any other fowl; 
therefore they are left on, as well as the feathers on 
the leg from the hock joint half way up the thigh 
and those on the outer joints of the wings. The 
breast, back, the wings next to the body and the 
upper part of the thighs are picked clean. They 
should be dry-picked without tearing the skin, and 
the head, mouth, shanks and feet washed clean. 
Care should be taken to remove all clotted blood 
from the mouth. Capons for the New York markets 
should be sent undrawn. Some Boston dealers 
receive them undrawn. They should be packed 
in boxes or flour barrels washed clean and lined 



Broilers 251 

with white wrapping-paper. Neatness and attrac- 
tive appearance are everything where quick sales 
and best prices are to be secured."* 

BROILERS 

Broilers are young, plump and fat chickens 
which have been forced to make the greatest pos- 
sible weight during the few weeks of their existence. 
Broiler rearing may be regarded as one of the spe- 
cialties of the poultry business, and one that does not 
appeal particularly to the farmer who keeps his fowls 
under what may be called good average conditions. 
If a farmer who keeps from fifty to one hundred and 
fifty hens should produce a few good broilers, the 
extra expense and trouble of preparing them for 
market and of marketing them would make serious 
inroads on the profits. 

Great skill is required to bring this work to its 
highest perfection; consequently those who are 
prepared to raise a considerable number of fowls 
for this purpose are more Hkely to become expert 
than are those whose chief interests He along other 
lines of work. On this account the production of 
broilers for the markets of the large cities is chiefly 
in the hands of comparatively few, who may be 
called specialists. These men make broiler rearing 
a considerable part of their business, and learn how 

* Bulletin No. 20, Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station. 



252 Farm Poultry 

to perform the various operations in the best manner 
and with the greatest exactness. 

If one is contemplating the production of broil- 
ers on a somewhat extensive scale, he should not 
depend upon written directions for his guidance, 
but should make a thorough , inspection of the 
markets, in order to learn what kind of product 
the market demands. He should also visit one or 
more broiler farms, where these birds are success- 
fully reared in large numbers. The experience of 
practical men is the safest guide. 

As broilers are often placed upon the market 
when they weigh less than two pounds per pair, 
the skill in feeding little chickens and the care of 
the brooder become of the utmost importance. 
Light-weight winter broilers may be regarded as 
strictly brooder chickens. The light-weight broil- 
ers, when in demand, sell for the highest prices. 
Skill is of more relative importance in the produc- 
tion of young high-priced meat than in the pro- 
duction of mature fowls or those which more nearly 
approach maturity. 

While the cost of food is of less relative impor- 
tance in the production of young fowls for the 
market than in the production of older ones, yet it 
should be remembered that the cost of food per 
pound of gain in live weight increases as the period 
from birth or hatching is increased. This cost con- 
tinues to increase until a period is reached when the 



Broiler Rearing 253 

food consumed produces no gain, that is, until the 
fowls cease to increase in size and weight. If the pro- 
duction of flesh is considered from a standpoint of 
food alone, the young fowls are the most profitable. 
When the cost of hatching and the value of the 
eggs are taken into account, the youngest product 
may not be the most profitable to the producer. It 
is for each breeder to determine for himself at what 
age he can sell with the greatest profit. Young fowls 
will undoubtedly be selected, but, as a few weeks' 
growth often changes considerably the value per 
pound, fine discriminations must be made if one is 
to become expert. 

The question is frequently asked, 'WiU it pay 
to raise broilers?" It will undoubtedly pay the 
right kind of people to enter into the business on a 
somewhat large scale; yet no one, no matter how 
enthusiastic he may be, should attempt broiler 
rearing on a large scale without experience and con- 
siderable capital. The chief essential to success 
is a good knowledge of the business. If this cannot 
be learned from the experience of others, it should 
be learned from personal experience, beginning 
in a small way at first and advancing as judgment 
seems to warrant. 

Broilers are reared more for home consumption 
on the farms in some parts of the country than others. 
The South depends more on these young fowls than 
the North. 



254 Farm Poultry 

Dry, sandy or gravelly soils are specially prized 
for broiler rearing. Cleanliness and freedom from 
moisture are requisites to success. These con- 
ditions are more easily maintained on light, po- 
rous soils than on heavy ones. Keep the chickens 
dry and clean and give them plenty of wholesome, 
easily digested food. Corn ' meal, wheat bran, 
ground oats with the hulls removed, and hard- 
boiled eggs may make the bulk of the ration. These 
should be fed after thoroughly soaking or scalding. 
Some meat food and some green food should not 
be neglected. Baked foods are recommended and 
are undoubtedly safe. For further discussion of 
foods, see chapter on feeding little chickens (Chap- 
ter XI). Those who make a study of the foods used 
by successful poultry-raisers soon learn that there is 
no best food, but many foods are excellent if fed 
with judgment. 

Various breeds of fowls are used for broilers, one 
of the favorites being the Wyandotte. Many prefer 
to use crosses, on account of the vigor and hardiness of 
the chicks. Heavy breeds are usually crossed on 
the smaller, quick-maturing ones. These crosses 
have suitable size and they mature early. 

Broiler-rearing and egg production go well 
together. Experienced broiler raisers who have a 
good knowledge of the business are able to produce 
eggs that will give better and more uniform lots of 
chickens than those that are purchased from farmers 



Production of Broilers 255 

who, perhaps, keep fowls of many different breeds. 
The ultimate success will depend largely on the 
fertihty of the eggs and on the kind of fowls that 
produce them. 

Many farmers who live near good markets are 
able to dispose of some of their best early chickens 
as broilers at remunerative prices. Sometimes the 
local demand is sufficiently great to cause rather 
indifferent birds to be marketed at good prices. 



CHAPTER XIII 

DUCKS AND GEESE 

The American farmer too often thinks of ' 'poul- 
try" as comprising only ''hens and chickens." The 
term really covers all kinds of domesticated birds, 
including those grown for pets or for mere fancy. 
With the more diversified agriculture of the future, 
other species than hens must come into greater 
prominence. 

DUCKS — GENERAL DISCUSSION 

While ducks have been reared on farms for a 
great many years, yet a large proportion of the 
business of duck-rearing is now in the hands of 
speciaHsts who conduct it on an extensive scale. 
A considerable proportion of the duck products 
of farms, where only small flocks are maintained, 
is consumed at home and does not affect the gen- 
eral market. The rearing of the so-called ''green 
ducks" for market has provided a profitable occu- 
pation for many extensive duck-raisers. Compara- 
tively few farmers enter into the business of duck- 
raising extensively. Ducks are usually kept in 

(256) 



Duck-Rearing 257 

moderate-sized flocks, that roam at will over a 
considerable portion of the premises. When reared 
under these conditions, the ducks frequently prove 
beneficial in the destruction of various insect pests. 
They will travel long distances, and in their rambles 
are continually on the lookout for food; both vege- 
table and animal life are greedily consumed. Ducks 
may become, under certain conditions, quite as 
destructive to farm crops as chickens, although 
if streams or wet fields are included within their 
range a considerable portion of their time is given 
to hunting food in these places. 

Those who enter into duck-raising extensively 
rear the fowls almost exclusively for meat. The 
eggs produced by extensive duck-raisers are not 
put on the market as food to any great extent, in 
competition with eggs that are produced cheaper 
by the noted egg breeds of hens. Ducks can seldom 
successfully compete with hens for egg production. 

Many farmers prefer, for various reasons, to 
keep ducks rather than hens. It is well known 
that ducks are comparatively free from disease 
and are not nearly so Hkely to be troubled with 
vermin as are hens. This is of considerable impor- 
tance on many farms where the fowls are not given 
much care and attention. 

Ducks are much more easily confined than 
hens. A fence two or three feet high should suffice 
for them under all ordinary conditions, particularly 



258 Farm Poultry 

for those breeds which are the most profitable 
for farm use. It is true that some of the less profit- 
able breeds, so far as meat production is concerned, 
are able to use their wings to good advantage 
and are quite as troublesome to keep within inci- 
sures as Mediterranean fowls. Another reason 
why farmers frequently prefer ducks to hens, is 
that the young grow much more rapidly. Those 
who make a practice of fattening young ducks 
for the market, expect to secure birds that will 
weigh four and one-half or five pounds at nine or ten 
weeks of age, while good chickens would weigh only 
about half as much. 

Ducks are adapted to the various parts of the 
country where chickens thrive well. They may 
be reared under a great variety of conditions as 
regards climate and exposure. Because ducks, 
in a state of nature, select shallow water or marshy 
land as their feeding-ground and largely prefer 
bodies of water to dty land, it is thought by many 
that streams or ponds are necessary for the suc- 
cessful rearing of domesticated birds. However, 
many of the most successful duck-raisers, who 
produce large numbers of young birds for the 
market, do not depend on streams or ponds of 
water for their fowls. It is true that the plumage 
of both young and old birds will be kept in a 
somewhat cleaner condition if the ducks have 
access to ponds or streams, but this is a matter 



Breeds of Ducks 259 

of minor importance in the rearing of ducks for 
the market. Some hold that if the breeding ducks 
have access to v/ater, a larger proportion of fertile 
eggs is secured. ' Other breeders, however, are able 
to conduct their business satisfactorily without such 
water, and consequently it may be said that the 
value of ponds or running water for breeding ducks 
may be somewhat questionable. 

DUCKS — BREEDS 

Ten breeds of ducks are described in the Ameri- 
can Standard of Perfection; viz., the Pekin, Ayles- 
bury, Rouen, Cayuga, Muscovy, East Indian, 
Call, Crested, Indian Runner and Swedish. Of 
these, the first four may be mentioned as the profit- 
able breeds for farm use. While the Muscovy 
ducks are the largest, yet they are not the most 
profitable for farmers. The East Indian and Call 
ducks are too small to be most profitable. They 
have not been bred for eggs or meat and are con- 
sidered as fancy fowls. They occupy a similar posi- 
tion among ducks to that which bantams occupy 
among chickens. 

Pekin. — The white Pekins undoubtedly occupy 
a foremost position as to popularity. Without 
doubt, a larger number of White Pekins are reared 
for market than of any other breed. They are 
pure white, large, and are excellent layers. They 



260 Farm Poultry 

are considered hardy and are easily reared. They 
mature early and are especially prized for the 
production of young birds for market. When 
walking they assume a more upright position than 
do the ducks of most other breeds. The Pekins 







Fig. 84. White Pekin drake, young (one-eighth size). 

are largely reared by extensive duck-raisers who 
make a specialty of the so-called ''green ducks;" 
that is, young birds that will weigh about five 
pounds apiece when ^ot more than ten weeks 
old. The standard weight for Pekins is 9 pounds 
for the drake and 8 for the duck. 

Aylesbury. — The Aylesburys probablj^ rank next 



Pekins and Aylesbury s 261 

to the Pekins in popularity. In general appear- 
ance they closely resemble the Pekins, but may 
be distinguished by their carriage. The Ayles- 
bury s have the same weight as the Pekins. They 
have the power of adapting themselves readily 
to the various conditions under which ducks are 
reared. They are considered even more hardy 







y 



Fig. 85. White Pekin duck, young (one-ninth size). 

and prohfic than the Pekins. Some practical duck 
raisers sometimes introduce an Aylesbury cross 
on their Pekin stock to increase vigor and pro- 
lificacy. For market purposes the white breeds 
(Pekin and Aylesbury) are preferred to the colored 
ones, because white young birds present a better 
appearance when dressed than do those of colored 
breeds. 

Rouen. — The Rouens are especially prized as 



262 Farm Poultry 

table fowls. As producers of fine-grained, deli- 
cate flesh, these fowls are not surpassed by any of 
the so-called useful farm breeds. The Rouens 
resemble the wild Mallards in color, the resem- 
blance between the drakes being most marked. 
The Rouens are hardy, prohfic, and of gentle dis- 
position. Young birds may be kept in rather large 




Fig. 86. Rouen drake (one-eighth size). 

flocks without the danger of stampeding that 
is so troublesome with the Pekins. The standard 
weight for the Rouens is the same as that for Pekins, 
yet it is thought that they do not grow so rapidly 
as the latter. Extensive duck-raisers prefer the 
Pekins or Aylesburys on account of their quick 
growth. However, the Rouens are most excellent 
farm fowls and are highly prized on account of 
their hardiness, prolificacy, and gentle disposition. 



Rouens and Black Cayugas 263 

- Black Cayuga.~The Black Cayugas are rec- 
ognized as a distinctively American breed. It is 
asserted by some that the Cayugas grow as rapidly 
and mature as early as the Pekins, but those who 
are extensively engaged in rearing ducks invari- 
ably choose one of the white breeds. The Cayugas 
are profitable farm ducks. They thrive well in 




Fig. 87. Rouen duck (one-eighth size). 

rather close confinement, are hardy, gentle, and 
do not care to wander so far from home as some 
other breeds. The standard weight for these is 
8 pounds for the drake and 7 for the duck. 

Muscovy ducks.—These are the largest of any 
of the breeds mentioned, but, for various rea- 
sons, are not such profitable farm fowls as others. 
When compared with the Pekins or Rouens, the 
Muscovies are not so good layers. They are not 



264 Farm Poultry 

so easily confined. Muscovy ducks are often 
troublesome in the poultry yard on account of 
their disposition to attack other fowls, both young 
and old. On account of their disposition to fly 
they are not easily kept within inclosures. 

Call ducks. — Call ducks are bred chiefly for 
exhibition purposes. The gray Call ducks are some- 
times bred for decoys and are used by sports- 
men to lure wild ducks within shooting distances. 
They are not recommended as profitable farm 
fowls. 

DUCKS — FOOD AND CARE 

The natural food of the duck differs in some 
respects from that of the hen. While ducks, like 
hens, eat a great variety of food, yet, because the 
duck is not possessed of a distinct crop, the food 
is passed more directly to the digestive organs 
and does not undergo so complete a softening 
process as that consumed by the hen. It is, there- 
fore, of the utmost importance that the food be 
consumed in a soft condition. In nature the duck 
gathers a large proportion of its food from streams, 
ponds, or* marshy places. This food consists of 
the young, growing shoots and roots of water plants, 
snails and the larvae of various water insects, together 
with small fish and other aquatic life. Those who 
have made a success of rearing ducks on an extended 
scale have learned a valuable lesson from nature 



Food for Ducks 



265 



and give to their young, growing ducks very little 
or no hard food. While a considerable portion of 
the ration will consist of grain, it is ground and 
moistened with water or milk and fed in a soft 
condition. 



V 


/-r i^^-^-^s^^g^^'^ 


ms^^^ M^ii 


•"^l' ^ r:^^^^^^ 








" w*" - ->^ 


^ w 



Fig. 88.- View on Wm. H. Truslow's duck farm, East Stroudsburg, Pa., 
showing arrangement of yards and manner of supplying water. 

It is important in duck-rearing to secure the 
greatest degree of cleanhness, although this is 
somewhat more difficult than with hens. Where 
ducks are kept in confinement in comparatively 
small pens or yards, it will sometimes be found 
impossible to prevent the runs from becoming foul, 
though occasional cultivation will aid materially 
in keeping the yards clean and in providing a sani- 



266 



Farm Poultry 



tary home for the occupants. Poultrymen use 
various disinfectants and absorbents in the yards 
in order to keep them as clean as possible. Yards 
that are not in use all the year should be planted 
to some crop if an opportunity is afforded. Those 




Fig. 89. Another view on Mr. Truslow's duck farm, showing the track 
on which a car of feed is pushed from pen to pen at feeding time. 

poultrymen who make a specialty of producing 
young ducks for the market make a practice of 
sowing the yards and runs to some quick-growing 
crop as soon as the yards are vacant. Rye is 
often used for this purpose. During the rearing 
season, gypsum, sawdust, sifted coal ashes, and 
other absorbents are freely used in those parts 




Food and Care 267 

of the yards that are most frequented by the 
ducks. 

Young ducks should be fed from a shallow 
trough, which should be kept as clean as possible. 
(See Fig. 90.) Pure water and clean yards are prom- 
inent essentials in suc- 
cessful duck-rearing. It 
is true that ducks will 
make small ponds and 

, T -, Fig. 90. A shallow feeding-trough. 

streams muddy and 

more or less filthy when they have access to them, yet 
those that are confined in yards without a running 
stream should be supplied with pure drinking-water. 
If the young ducks do not have opportunity 
to obtain for themselves green and animal food, 
it should be supplied to them. Specialists fre- 
quently feed young, rapidly growing ducks a ration 
that consists of 10 or -20 per cent animal meal. 
Rations which contain considerable animal meal 
have proved superior to a purely vegetable diet. 
'^Rations containing animal food proved very 
much superior for ducklings to rations of vege- 
table origin which had, according to the ordinary 
methods of estimation, practically the same nutri- 
tive value. A ration of vegetable food supplemented 
by bone ash proved much inferior to another ration 
of similar 'composition,' in which three-eighths 
of the protein came from animal food."* 

♦Summary of Bulletin No. 171, New York Experiment Station. 



268 



Farm Poultry 



If the ducklings are confined in comparatively 
small yards, it is best to provide some shade for 
them, particularly during the hottest months. 
Green food fed to ducks confined in yards should 
be cut fine in a feed cutter. . Almost 
any green, succulent food will be 
readily eaten. Rye, clover, alfalfa, 
Canada field peas, and corn make 





Fig. 91. A V-shaped water trough. 



Fig. 92. A shallow water trough 



excellent food if finely cut. Ducks will readily eat the 
plant, stalk and all, in this condition, while chick- 
ens will select the leaves and other tender parts 
and reject the more woody portions of the stalks. 
The green material may be fed alone or mixed 
with the moistened ground food. The latter may 
consist of wheat bran, corn meal and ground oats, 
the hulls of the oats having been removed. Various 
kinds of ground grains may be employed, although 
those mentioned are used most by experienced men. 



Care of Ducks and Geese 269 

Ducklings of some breeds appear to be quite 
fearless in some respects, yet under other condi- 
tions they are easily frightened, and, if a consid- 
erable number are kept in one yard or pen, the 
injury done by ^ ^stampeding" is sometimes con- 
siderable. Pekin duckhngs are particularly liable 
to injury from this cause. Some extensive duck- 
raisers make a practice of Hghting artificially that 
part of the yard occupied by the fowls during 
the night as a partial safeguard against this 
trouble. 

GEESE — GENERAL DISCUSSION 

The rearing of geese is not so extensive a busi- 
ness as that of raising ducks. The conditions 
requisite for the successful raising of geese are 
very different from those for ducks. The rear- 
ing of geese is not in the hands of a comparatively 
few extensive raisers. Geese are still raised on 
many farms in comparatively small flocks. The 
fact that geese require very much more room than 
ducks has probably been an important factor 
in keeping the business of rearing them in the 
hands of farmers who go into the enterprise in 
a moderate way. While ducks are frequently reared 
successfully without water, except as it may be 
necessary for drinking, yet geese thrive best where 
ponds or streams are provided. While ducks 
may thrive under practically the same condi- 



270 Farm Poultry 

tions as geese, yet the conditions under which geese 
do best are not necessary for successful duck- 
raising. Fields which are not suitable for culti- 
vation on account of springs or streams make 
good pastures for geese, A comparatively low, 
springy or marshy land may be used to good advan- 
tage if some part of the run is comparatively high 
and dry. Geese do not thrive so well in large flocks 
as ducks do. There seems to be a somewhat gen- 
eral law which may be apphed to all farm stock 
as regards the size of flocks or herds. The smaller 
animals, as a rule, thrive much better in large 
flocks than do the larger breeds or varieties. It 
is true that large herds of cattle are maintained on 
some of the great cattle ranches in the prairie 
countries, but an almost unhmited range is given 
them. 

Geese do not require a great desLl of attention. 
After the young are a week or so old, they are able 
to care for themselves largely, if a good range is 
given. The food of geese is largely grass, although 
insects and other low forms of animal life are eaten 
readily and are essential. 

GEESE — BREEDS 

The most common breeds of the pure-bred 
geese are the Toulouse, African, Embden, Chinese, 
Canada or Wild, and Egyptian. Many geese 



Toulouse Geese 271 

throughout the country are of no particular breed. 
It is probable that these geese have descended 
from those imported by settlers at an early date 
in the history of the country. In some instances 
improved breeds have been crossed on these common 
or^ mongrel geese, but many flocks are still main- 
tained that are of no particular breed, neither 
color nor conformation indicating that they con- 
tain any considerable proportion of blood of improved 
kinds. 

Toulouse, — The Toulouse geese are large, mas- 
sive, and probably attain a greater weight than 
those of any other breed. I. K. Felch states* that 
geese of sixty pounds weight per pair have been 
exhibited in American exhibitions. 

The American Poultry Association has adopted 
the following as standard weights: Adult gander 
25 and adult goose 20 pounds. 

"Toulouse geese usually lay more eggs in a 
season than Embden or African geese, but not so 
many as the best China geese. They are nearer 
non-sitting than any other variety, but some indi- 
viduals make good mothers. The goslings are 
greenish yellow in color, generally hardy and vig- 
orous. They are quiet and peaceable, and more 
easily confined by stone fences than other breeds, 
and would be more hkely to be contented in close 
quarters. Toulouse geese are gray in color, with 

♦"Poultry Culture," page 404. 



272 



Farm Poultry 



a square, massive body, carried fairly horizontal, 
the abdominal pouch, or loose folds of skin between 
and behind the legs, almost or quite touching the 
ground."* 

It is often difficult to distinguish the sexes, 




Fig. 93. A pair of gray Toulouse geese. — From United States Department 
of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 64.— Howard. 

as the gander and goose have exactly the same 
color and the same feathering. 

Embden. — The Embdens very much resemble 
the Toulouse in general form; they are, however, 
pure white throughout, which enables one readily 
to distinguish one breed from the other. The 
Embdens do not have the great abdominal pouch 
of the Toulouse, although it is sometimes dis- 

* Report, 1897, Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station. 



Embden and African Geese 



273 



tinctly developed. 'These geese are inclined to 
lay a little earlier than the Toulouse, and their 
eggs average a trifle heavier, but they do not lay 
quite so many eggs, and are much more persistent 
sitters. They make excellent mothers. The gos- 
lings when hatched are of a rich yellow color, which 




Fig. 94. Gray wild goose. — From United States Department of Agriculture, 
Farmers' Bulletin No. 64. — Howard. 

changes to white as the quill feathers grow. They 
are generally hardy and grow rapidly.''* 

The standard weight for geese is 20 pounds 
for adult gander and 18 pounds for adult goose. 

African. — ''Gray African geese are by many 
raisers considered the most profitable of all geese 
to keep. They grow the heaviest in the shortest 
space of time, and are ready for market in ten weeks, 

♦Report, 1897, Rhode Island Agriciiltural Experiment Station. 



274 



Farm Poultry 



weighing, at that age, between eight and ten pounds. 
They are very much Hke the Pekin duck in this 
respect, and, as compared with other geese, give 
the most satisfactory returns for the least labor 
and time spent in growing them."* 

The African geese are called good layers, and 
are especially prized as table fowls. The flesh 




Fig. 95. A pair of gray African geese. — ^From United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 64. — Howard. 

is good flavored and not so coarse fibered as the 
Toulouse. The young are hardy and grow rapidly. 
The voice and notes of the African goose resemble 
those of the China goose quite as much as those 
of the Toulouse or Embden. 

CMnese.— Individuals of this breed are several 
pounds smaller than those of the breeds pre- 

*ranners' Bulletin No. 64, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



Chinese and Wild Geese 



275 



viously described. They are highly prized for the 
quahty of their flesh and are recognized as excel- 
lent layers. Their lack of size, however, has made 
them unpopular except for exhibition purposes. 

They are considered an ornamental variety and 
are small or medium in size. They have long, arched 




- Fig. 96. Wild and African cross. — From United States Department of 
Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 64. — Howard. 

necks and bear a knob at the base of the beak 
which gives them a pecuhar appearance. 

WILD, OR CANADIAN GOOSE 



These geese are bred mostly for exhibition pur- 
poses and for parks. They are of medium size and 
are not bred for utihty. They have long, sHm necks 



276 Farm Poultry 

and small heads. They, of course, retain the voice 
of the wild geese, which adds to their attractiveness. 

GEESE — ^FOOD' AND CAKE 

The first food for young goslings in nature is 
grass, and breeders prefer to provide this for the 
young of the domesticated geese. Grass at pas- 
ture is recommended. Moistened corn meal is 
also recommended. Grit in the form of sand or 
fine gravel should be provided. Cooked vege- 
tables make an excellent food and may be fed 
in the form of a mash. Bran, middlings, and corn 
meal, mixed with cooked vegetables, are highly 
recommended. As with ducks and chickens, it 
has been found best to give some animal food. 
Animal meal mixed with the moistened corn 
meal is recommended for young geese by 
many breeders. The food of breeding geese should 
consist chiefly of natural food gathered from the 
pasture. Insects, snails, and other animal life 
are then consumed. If animal food is not abundant, 
it may be supplied artificially to good advantage 
in the form of animal meal. It is essential to per- 
mit breeding geese to roam at will over areas of 
considerable size. For fattening geese, it is a gen- 
eral practice to confine them somewhat closely 
in order to prevent them from taking too much 
exercise, Europeans, who have become so noted for 



l^dte de foie gras 277 

fattening geese, take great pains to keep them quiet. 
Every precaution should be taken to avoid any 
disturbance of the flock. Corn meal may form the 
larger portion of the daily ration for fattening 
geese. Meat scrap may enter into the ration up 
to one-fifth of the total amount, for immature 
fowls. 

Pate de foie gras. — In districts where the pro- 
duction of "pate de foie gras" has developed into 
an industry, particularly about Strasburg, Ger- 
many, the geese are confined in individual stalls 
so closely that they are compelled to remain in 
a sitting or standing posture. The stalls are nar- 
row, so that the birds are not even permitted to 
turn around. They are removed from this stall 
twice each day and fed, by the cramming process, 
whole Indian corn that has been thoroughly soaked. 
The corn is forced into the mouth by hand and 
pushed into the throat by the finger and is worked 
down the neck by rubbing externally. The geese 
are given plenty of pure water and grit in the 
form of fine gravel. The close confinement and 
abundance of corn cause the livers to grow abnor- 
mally large, sometimes weighing as much as three 
pounds each. 

It is said that expert feeders will produce large 
livers in over 80 per cent of the geese fed. The 
livers when prepared are known commercially 
as '^pate de foie gras," and are esteemed a great 



278 Farm Poultry 

delicacy. The feeders who sell livers to those who 
prepare them for the trade sometimes receive as 
much as $1.50 per poun^. In some districts, it is 
reported that great stress is laid on the grit which 
is furnished these fattening geese. Small pieces of 
antimony ore are said to be highly prized for this 
purpose. In some places the geese are suspended 
in nets, which prevent them from taking exercise. 

Houses. — Geese require inexpensive and small 
houses. Comparatively rude and simple struc- 
tures answer every purpose. Simple shelter from 
the storm is all that is necessary during the larger 
part of the year. While they require larger houses 
than ducks, and do not stand crowding to so great 
an extent, yet the buildings need not be expensive. 
Geese will require about the same space in the 
building per pound of live weight as ducks, but 
being much larger, require larger buildings for the 
same number of fowls. 

Laying qualities. — Geese are long-lived. It is 
stated on good authority that they frequently 
live from thirty to fifty years, and individuals 
have lived to be more than a hundred years old. 
The females retain their breeding qualities through 
life, yet it is recommended to keep only young^'gan- 
ders. Those from three to five years of age are 
preferred. Geese are good sitters and make good 
mothers. In this respect they still retain well 
their natural instincts. Under ordinary conditions, 



Laying and Incubation 279 

a goose will lay from twelve to twenty eggs before 
incubation. If the eggs be removed from the nest, 
two or three sittings of eggs may be produced by 
one female before incubation will be persisted in. 
Usually it is recommended not to attempt to secure 
more than three sittings from one female before she 
is permitted to incubate. In practice, the first 
eggs are usually set under hens, the goose hatching 
the eggs that are laid last. 

Geese frequently begin laying early in the spring, 
sometimes as early as February. Many instances 
have been noted where the laying commenced in 
in the late fall or early winter, but would not con- 
tinue through the winter. In such instances the 
laying would begin again in the spring. 

The period of incubation is stated by various 
authors to be from twenty-eight to thirty-one 
days, which without doubt will represent the limits 
under ordinary conditions. When eggs are placed 
under hens they are not covered quite so well as 
when placed under the mother goose, and incuba- 
tion therefore may be delayed a little. 



CHAPTER XIV 

TURKEYS, GUINEAS, PEAFOWLS, PIGEONS 

Of the species of poultry aside from the hen, 
ducks and geese, none has risen to great popularity 
in North America except the turkey. The various 
kinds of pheasants and peafowls are grown more for 
fancy than for profit. At all events, they are not 
to be considered as important farm fowls. 

TURKEYS 

The wild turkey is a native of North America 
and still abounds in the natural forests of Penn- 
sylvania, Virginia and other Atlantic states. It 
is also found in Tennessee and Kentucky, and is 
abundant in some of the western states, but its 
principal home in the eastern United States at 
the present time is in the mountainous regions of 
the Atlantic states. Like many other species of 
game it is rapidly disappearing, due to the great 
changes made by man in his onward march of 
civilization. Man is a great disturbing force of 
nature's equilibrium when he removes the forests 
in order to prepare the land for cultivation. He 

(289) 



Wild Turkeys 281 

not only destroys the home of the game by removing 
the woods but causes frequent forest fires, which 
are destructive at the brooding season. Probably 
the number of wild turkeys is diminishing, yet, 
owing to their shy nature, they are not hkely to 
become entirely extinct for many years. 

The wild tm-keys that are now found in the 
forests of North America are those which have 
been strong enough to withstand the unfavorable 
conditions to which they have been subjected and 
which have escaped their natural enemies. In 
other words, they furnish a most excellent illus- 
tration of the '' survival of the fittest." Persons who 
have had experience in breeding wild turkeys in 
confinement are convinced that they will do well 
and retain good breeding qualities on less food than 
will be required to keep domesticated turkeys in 
the same condition. 

Wild turkeys appear to be somewhat taller in 
proportion to their weight than domesticated ones. 
'^They thrive and keep in good condition on less 
food than the domestic turkey. Their slender, 
alert appearance is striking to the most careless 
observer. Their breadth of shoulder, deep chest 
and firm step are noticeable when they are compared 
with the domestic turkey. The head is small in 
proportion to the body, and has a clean, game-Uke 
appearance. The eyes are large, bright hazel, and 
full of intelligence and suspicion. . . . Gobblers, 



282 Farm Poultry 

when full grown, are about four feet high and weigh, 
according to the section of the country they are 
taken in, from 15 to 20 pounds each. They do not 
get their full growth until the end of the third year, 
and increase in weight and beauty for several years 
after that. Gobblers weighing 36 and 40 pounds have 
often been shot. . . . Wild gobblers mate later 
and the hens lay later than domestic turkeys. The 
flesh of wild birds is of excellent flavor and is more 
delicate and juicy than that of domestic turkeys."* 
The Rhode Island Experiment Station speaks 
as follows of wild turkey crosses:! ^'Where wild 
turkeys are plenty, crosses between wild and domes- 
tic birds frequently occur without design on the 
part of the owner of the latter. Scores of cases 
are recorded where a wild gobbler from the woods 
has taken possession of a flock of common turkeys, 
sometimes after first battling with and killing the 
domestic gobbler. The results of such a cross in 
almost every case have been so satisfactory that 
such matings are much desired by turkey-raisers 
in those sections, and young wild birds are caught 
for this purpose and brought up with common 
young turkeys. Very often nests of wild turkey 
eggs are found in the woods and hatched on the 
farm. These domesticated wild birds usually persist 
in roosting separate from the others, generally in 

* Bulletin 25, Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station, p. 116. 
tSame, p. 119. 



Wild Turkey Crosses 283 

the woods or on the top of a house or barn. When 
raised from the egg they become more gentle and 
fearless than the domestic turkey, but if chased 
or frightened they recover then- wild habits very 
quickly. Wild turkey crosses are hardier and health- 
ier than common turkeys and rarely have disease. 
Half-blood hens are generally too wild, but half- 
blood gobblers are not so wild and are suitable 
for crossing with domestic hens. A small proportion 
of wild blood improves the size, form, and general 
appearance, as well as the vigor, without being a 
disadvantage in any way. A quarter-wild cross is 
better for practical breeding than a pure wild or 
half-wild bird. Half-wild crosses do well if allowed a 
large range, but are not well suited to woody lands 
or as easily kept on small places as the domestic 
turkey. 

''Wild turkey hens under domestication and wild 
first-cross hens often disappear in the spring and 
are not seen until fall, when they usually return to 
their own home with a brood of nearly full-grown 
turkeys. Half-blood mothers make their young 
too wild. Half-bloods reared by domestic turkey 
hens are not much incHned to stray. Quarter-bloods 
under certain conditions may be as wild as the wild 
bird of the woods. 

'The flock of half-wild birds reared at the Sta- 
tion this season was very tame and unsuspicious 
until several were snared for exhibition at the Kings- 



284 Farm Poultry 

ton Fair. Since then they have been so shy that 
we were unable to secure another lot. They take 
flight immediately if a suspicious movement is 
made. They will be more easily caught later in 
the season. The wild blood gives the cross an 
astonishing abihty to care for themselves. It is 
apt to have the strongest influence in breeding. If 
first crosses are bred together the stock resembles 
the pure wild, and after several generations cannot 
be distinguished from the pure wild by good judges. 
The older the bird grows the more he shows the wild 
blood. Crosses have much of the superior game flavor 
of the wild and command a higher price for the table. 

''Some wild bronze crosses that are half and three- 
quarters wild blood are as large as the pure bronze 
turkeys. Several years' crossing, however, with the 
selection of the largest for breeding each season, 
gives the greatest size."* 

Domesticated turkeys partake largely of the 
nature of the wild stock from which they have de- 
scended. Many of the domesticated flocks have been 
crossed with the wild fowl within recent years. 

Turkeys that are commonly reared for profit on 
farms are of a roving disposition and do not thrive 
well when closely confined. On this account, they 
are not suited to rearing in large numbers on small 
areas. Owners of small farms or village lots, there- 
fore, are practically debarred from rearing large 

* Bulletin No. 25, Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station. 



Turkeys — Varieties 285 

numbers of turkeys, particularly if they are to be 
kept from trespassing on the holdings of their 
neighbors. While the mother turkey with her brood 
may be confined in very hmited areas for a time 
during the brooding season, yet as the young become 
older and are prepared to seek their own Hving, they 
thrive much better if close restrictions are not en- 
forced. Whoever attempts to rear turkeys in con- 
siderable numbers should therefore plan to give 
them a wide range, particularly during the latter 
part of their growth. They are not able to adapt 
themselves to artificial conditions so well as chickens 
or ducks or even geese. 

In North America there are two distinct species 
of native turkeys; one inhabits the United States 
and Mexico, the other is found in Honduras. The 
latter is sometimes spoken of as the ocellated turkey. 
The former has been separated into several varieties, 
the best known of which are the Mexican turkey, 
from which the common domesticated turkey is 
descended, and the wild turkey of the eastern United 
States. The Mexican form is somewhat smaller 
than the wild form of the eastern United States. 

TURKEYS — VARIETIES 

The recognized varieties of the domestic turkey 
are the Bronze, Narragansett, White Holland, Buff, 
Slate, Black, and Bourbon. 



286 



Farm Poultry 



The Bronze, — The Bronze is the largest variety. 
The weight adopted by the American Poultry 
Association is for this turkey, adult male 36 pounds, 
adult female 20 pounds. The origin of the variety 
is obscure. Some authorities maintain that it was 
formed by crossing the North American wild on 



:tA !r- 'i 




Fig. 97. Bronze turkey, male. 

the domesticated Black. The wandering disposi- 
tion of the Bronze is thought to be due to a com- 
paratively recent infusion of wild blood. This is 
unquestionably the most popular variety, owing 
largely, no doubt, to its great size. Breeders and 
judges of turkeys lay great stress on the size 
of the Bronze. Correct plumage is not sufficient 



Varieties of Turkeys 287 

to redeem an exhibition bird if it lacks in size. 
(Fig. 97.) 

Narragansett. — This variety takes its name from 
Narragansett Bay in Rhode Island. This state 
has long been noted for the large numbers and 
excellence of the turkeys which it has produced. The 
reputation of the Rhode Island turkeys was made 
largely when the Narragansett s were chiefly reared. 
In more recent years the Bronze has supplanted 
the Narragansetts to a considerable extent, which 
was due to the greater size of the former, although 
the latter are not small turkeys. The Standard 
gives the weight for Narragansetts as 30 pounds 
for the cock and 18 for the hen. They are of a gray 
color, although some bronze luster is seen on the 
wings. They have plump, thick-set bodies and grow 
rapidly. They mature early and do not roam so far 
as the Bronze. 

The White Holland. — This variety is sometimes 
known as the White Turkey. It is not so popular 
as some other kinds, yet in a few localities it is a 
favorite. Many breeders who have had an oppor- 
tunity to compare this turkey with others assert 
that it is one of the most profitable kinds. The White 
Hollands grow rapidly and attain a heavy weight at 
an early age. 

'The White Hollands are perhaps the best lay- 
ers among turkeys. It is sometimes reckoned as 
a fault that few hens want to hatch early in the 



288 Farm Poultry 

season, and a large number of eggs and no broody- 
hens is not an uncommon occurrence. ... I 
believe them to be good^ turkeys and worthy of 
the best efforts of the breeders and farmers in 
general, and think no one need be seriously dis- 
appointed in them if he goes ahead properly and 
knows what he is doing. ^'* The standard weight 
for White Hollands is given for cock 28 pounds 
and hen 18 pounds. 

Buff turkey. — The Buff variety is thought by 
many to be the most beautiful of turkeys. It is 
not known how the variety originated, although 
it was probably produced by crossing. The Buffs 
are about the same size as the White Hollands and 
are profitable fowls. 

Slate turkey. — The Slate turkeys in many respects 
are very much Hke the Buffs. The color is thought 
by many to be the chief difference. 

Neither of these varieties is largely bred, so 
their actual value as market turkeys has not been 
determined. Some breeders speak highly of them 
and, no doubt, they are valuable varieties, but there 
seems to be no indication that they are supplanting 
either the Bronze or the Narragansetts as profitable 
fowls for the farmer and poultryman. 

Black turkey. — This is an old variety. It has 
been bred in England for a long time. ''In certain 
parts of England it was, until quite recently, the 

*Geo. Enty, in "Turkeys and How to Grow Them." — Myrick, p. 28. 



Care of Turkeys 289 

favorite variety, and is known there as the Black 
Norfolk.''* 

Bourbon Red turkey. — These turkeys take their 
name from Bourbon County, Kentucky, where it 
is supposed they originated. In size they compare 
with the Narragansetts, cock 30 and hen 18 pounds. 
Breeders make rather strong claims for these fowls, 
yet it is very doubtful if they are superior to the 
three first-mentioned varieties. It is, however, 
an advantage oftentimes to have the different flocks 
of a neighborhood distinguished by variety char- 
acteristics so that they may be most readily separated 
should they become mixed. 

TURKEYS — GENERAL CARE 

At no time in the Hfe of the turkey does its 
wild nature assert itself more than at the laying 
season. The domesticated turkey hen still loves 
secrecy as regards her nesting-place. Half-wild 
turkeys, when given their Hberty, have frequently 
eluded all attempts on the part of watchers to follow 
them and to locate their nests. Many successful 
turkey-raisers who do not keep the breeding fowls 
confined within - large inclosures provide nesting- 
places for them in more or less secluded places. An 
empty barrel turned on its side or pieces of wide 
boards nailed together so that a low roof is formed 

* H. S. Babcock, in "Turkeys and How to Grow Them" — Myrick, p. 22. 



290 Farm Poultry 

over a nest on the ground answer the purpose. As a 
good turkey hen will lay more eggs than she can cover 
well at one sitting, it is customary to remove the 
eggs from the nest daily and to place the first laid 
under broody hens. The last eggs should be given 
the turkey hen to hatch. 

Some attempts have been made to rear turkeys 
by means of artificial incubators and brooders, but 
in many instances the results have been far from satis- 
factory. Most turkey-raisers depend upon natural 
methods of incubation and brooding. Turkey eggs 
hatch in twenty-eight days. 

Selection of breeding stock. — Many farmers un- 
doubtedly make mistakes in selecting young and 
immature birds for breeding stock. Experienced 
turkey-raisers insist on breeding from mature and 
well-tried birds. If a hen proves to be a good 
breeder and a careful mother, she should be kept as 
long as she proves profitable. The young of mature 
parents are thought to be considerably stronger 
than those of immature fowls. Two- or three-year- 
old toms are sometimes preferred to older ones 
on account of the great weight which older birds 
attain. 

^^A few plain rules which may be observed to 
advantage are as follows : 

''First. — Always use as breeders turkey hens over 
one year old. Be sure they are strong, healthy, and 
vigorous, and of good medium size. In no instance 



Breeding Turkeys 291 

select the smaller ones. Do not strive to have them 
unnaturally large. 

'^Second. — The male may be a yearling or older. 
Do not imagine that the large, overgrown males are 
the best. Strength, health, and vigor, with well- 
proportioned medium size are the main points of 
excellence. 

"Third. — ^Avoid close breeding. New blood is of 
vital importance to turkeys. Better send a thousand 
miles for a new male than to risk the chances of 
inbreeding. Secure one in the fall so as to be assured 
of his health and vigor prior to the breeding season."* 

''Mr. Grinnell, who Uves on a farm near the 
Experiment Station, raises from 50 to 60 turkeys 
every season. Others in his neighborhood have 
poor success. He does not believe in changing 
gobblers when a good one has been secured. When 
he gets one that sires good stock he keeps him as 
long as he is good for anything. The one he now 
has is four years old. The hens also are kept as long 
as they live. . . . One hen that he has had for 
five years was said to have been eight years old when 
he bought her. She still lays from two to three litters 
of eggs each season, and her turkeys are larger than 

the others."! 

Number of females to one male. — The question is 
often asked as to how many females can be placed 

*T. F. McGrew in Farmers' Bulletin No. 200. 

t Bulletin No. 25, Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station. 



292 . Farm Poultry 

with one male for best results. It will be impossible 
to give any inflexible rule to govern this phase of 
the breeding operations, as freedom of exercise, 
strength, vigor, etc., are important factors bearing 
on this question. In extreme cases, the results have 
been all that could be desired, when twenty females 
were placed with one male; but under ordinary 
conditions it will be safest if no more than from four 
to eight females be placed with one male. 

Care and food for the young. — Newly hatched 
poults are very delicate and require close atten- 
tion on the part of the attendant. First of all, they 
must be kept dry. Wet or damp quarters should be 
avoided. A dry, porous soil is considered much more 
satisfactory than a heavy one, though the latter 
be underdrained. ''Young turkeys should not be 
out in heavy showers until their backs are well 
covered with feathers. If they get wet, they may die 
from chill unless put in a warm room to dry. Black 
or red pepper and ginger in the food or drinking- 
water aid them to overcome a chill, and are of great 
value on cold or damp days and are a preventive 
of bowel troubles in both old and young turkeys."* 

For the first few weeks the young should be kept 
in dry places and not permitted to travel through 
tall grass when it is wet. During the warm and dry 
parts of the day they may be given a run on short 
grass or cultivated land. Many poultrym*en prefer 

* Bulletin No. 25, Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station. 



Care and Food for Young Turkeys 



293 



placing the hen in a large, airy coop and giving the 
young a free run, rather than to confine the young 
and give the hen her freedom. In either case it is 
ad\dsable to restrict the run of the young for a few 
days. It should not be omitted to move the coops 
frequently, that the young may be brooded on fresh 
ground. 

The first food should be soft and easily digestible. 
Most turkey-raisers highly recommend hard-boiled 




Fig. 98. Turkey house — Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station. 

eggs chopped fine. This is a most excellent food, but 
should be fed in moderation and in connection with 
other soft foods. Stale bread dipped in milk and 
allowed to drain until it becomes dry enough to 
crumble is a most excellent first food. This may be 
fed until the young are several days old. It should 
be borne in mind that the bread, or any other food 



294 Farm Poultry 

for that matter, should not be fed in a sloppy or 
very moist condition. Coarse bread baked for the 
purpose, if softened with milk, is highly prized. 

It should be borne in mind that young turkeys are 
seed- and insect-eaters and not slop-eaters. While 
bread, milk, and eggs contain the elements most 
necessary for the growth of the young of nearly all 
fowls, yet it is important to have this food properly 
prepared as regards water content. Scalded bran 
and corn meal, to which some finely chopped hard- 
boiled eggs have been added, is relished, and is a 
satisfactory food. As the poults become older, they 
may be fed bran, Indian meal and ground oats (the 
hulls removed) which have been thoroughly soaked. 
Freshly moistened meal foods are not equal to the 
same food that has become thoroughly softened by 
soaking or scalding. Thick sour milk or curd may 
be mixed with the soft foods to good advantage. 

When the birds are beginning to ^ ^feather out," 
cracked corn may be added to the ration. Some 
successful poultry -raisers, however, recommend 
soaking the cracked corn at first. Later in the season 
whole corn may be fed. Old corn is preferred to new. 

GUINEA FOWLS 

These fowls are not reared in large numbers on 
farms devoted to that particular purpose, as are 
chickens and ducks, but comparatively small numbers 



Guinea Fowls 295 

are. reared on many farms. The rearing of guineas 
in the southern part of the United States is of far 
greater importance than it is in the North. Where 
they are reared in the largest numbers the young 
fowls are highly esteemed for food. 

Under ordinary farm conditions the domes- 




FiG. 99. A guinea hen (one-sixth sire). 

ticated guineas can hardly be called profitable 
farm fowls. They lay fairly well during the sum- 
mer time if given a wide range, but, owing to the 
disposition of the hen to hide her nest, the eggs 
are often entirely lost. Many instances are known 
in which the hen has secreted her nest and continued 
to lay until it became well filled, when it would be 



296 Farm Poultry 

abandoned for another. This, in turn, might be left 
to the same fate as the first. Instances are known 
of three nests being well filled with eggs before the 
hen showed any disposition to incubate. 

Objections have been made to the fowl on account 
of its sharp, screeching voice. It is true that guineas 
make more noise than chickens and that their 
voices are somewhat piercing, yet they are not objec- 
tionable to most people unless the poultry yard and 
other places frequented by them are very near the 
dweUing- house. The writer has heard several 
farmers express a liking for these birds because 
they are ^'rather noisy." They are '^company." Like 
geese, guineas are inclined to give an alarm if the 
poultry yard is molested. As a rule, these fowls 
mingle well in the poultry yard with chickens, 
both young and old. 

Guineas like a wide range. They prefer to perch 
far from the ground — preferably in trees — although 
they will frequently perch with hens in poultry 
houses during severe weather, if given an opportu- 
nity to do so. Guineas are naturally shy and are 
easily frightefied, although they may become tame 
with kind and careful treatment. While not strictly 
so, guineas are strongly inclined to be monogamous, 
and consequently it is necessary to keep almost as 
many males as females, if fertile eggs are desired. 
When several females are placed with one male, 
poor hatches are to be expected. 



Characteristics of Peafowls 297 

PEAFOWLS 

Peafowls are reared in small numbers by those 
who delight in seeing the most gorgeous plumage 
of domesticated fowls. They are not reared for 
their flesh nor for egg production. It is recorded,* 
however, that in the reign of Henry VI of England, 
peacocks were highly esteemed as a delicacy. In 
some respects peafowls are quite as near the wild 
forms from which they have descended as any species 
of domesticated fowls. They delight in perching at 
a great distance from the ground and frequently fly 
to the roofs of tall farm buildings. They fly easily 
and gracefully. 

The male or cock bird is by far the most gor- 
geous of farm fowls. Peafowls are reared almost 
wholly on account of the proud and brilliant appear- 
ance of the male. The brilliant coloring of the head 
and neck feathers and his large and beautiful tail 
make him a source of delight to children and an 
interesting bird to adults. The hen is modest-appear- 
ing and unattractive in coloring. The cock is gener- 
ally troublesome in the poultry yard on account of 
his disposition to kill other kinds of poultry, particu- 
larly young chickens and ducks. Cocks have been 
known to attack mature fowls and even children 
and adults. The male does not acquire his most 
briUiant and perfect plumage until he is more than 

* "Book of Poultry," Wright, p. 531. 



298 Farm Poultry 

three years of age. The peacock is dishked by some 
on account of his loud, screeching voice, which he is 
inchned to use freely. 

PIGEONS 

While pigeons are not usually mentioned among 
the various kinds of profitable farm stock, yet 
the possibilities of profitable returns are so great 
that a somewhat full discussion of pigeon-rearing 
is warranted. However, only a short discussion 
will be devoted to the business as yielding money 
returns on the investment. To lovers of animal 
life, pigeon-rearing offers a most fascinating field, 
particularly to the boys and girls who delight in 
caring for stock that they may call their own. Many 
a farm boy has become interested in animal life 
and has learned many things which have been of 
great use to him in after years, that he acquired by 
caring for and studying the needs of pets which had 
been given wholly to his charge. Farm boys become 
dissatisfied with the farm and decide to leave it 
chiefly for two reasons — because they are not inter- 
ested in farm hfe and work, and because they have 
not been taught how to make quick returns and good 
profits for the money invested. The rearing of pigeons 
will often afford satisfactory first lessons and may 
reveal possibilities that will be sufficiently enticing 
when considered from a standpoint of income alone, 



Pigeon Rearing 



299 



Interest in animal life, particularly those forms that 
are easily handled and controlled, serves a most 
useful purpose in leading the young mind along 
profitable channels of development. Interest in 
pigeon-rearing cannot fail to develop, to some extent, 
the powers of observation. Other things being equal, 
the boy who sees most will have the best understand- 




FiG. 100. Pigeon cote and aviary — Rhode Island Agricultural College. 

ing of the subject in question. So long as knowledge 
is power, then those who are the closest observers 
will not only understand best the matter under con- 
sideration, but will be best prepared to meet the 
greater problems that each individual is required, 
sooner or later, to solve for himself. 

The care of pigeons may be given almost wholly, 
to quite young boys and girls, if a few simple direc- 
tions for feeding and care be understood, and a 
suitable home be provided for the birds. On most 



300 Farm Poultry 

farms only a small money outlay will be required, 
and very little trouble is necessary to prepare com- 
fortable quarters for breeding pigeons, particularly 
if the young be sold as squabs. 

^The shelters for squab-breeders should not 
be too cold, although the experienced can raise 
them in almost any old shell of a building, as far 
north as New York city. The fittings are only nests, 
perches and drinking- and bath-fountains, a space 
of two square feet of floor being counted to each bird, 
with never less than twice as much room in the flight 
yards, in the open air. The flight spaces are best en- 
closed by inch-mesh wire net, as this excludes 
sparrows, which are arrant thieves and fighters. The 
netting usually runs overhead, to the highest point 
of the roof."* 

A fine quahty of squabs finds a ready market 
in the great cities. They are quoted from about 
50 cents to $4 per dozen, and frequently the expert 
producers obtain nearly twice this amount. For 
the money outlay, squab-raising offers a tempting 
field for those who are willing to give attention to 
the many little things. To those who are not willing 
to observe closely the needs of the birds and to use 
good judgment in meeting these demands, pigeon- 
raising will probably prove unsatisfactory, affording 
neither pleasure nor profit. The negligent or care- 
less person should not enter into the poultry busi- 

* "Pocket Money Poultry," Norys, p. 140. 



Squabs 301 

ness, since success depends on the many minor 
things which cannot be neglected. Squab-rearing 
may be made very profitable if ''eternal vigilance/^ 
the price of success, be given. 

Most of the squabs that are now sold in the 
markets of the large cities average from one-half 
pound to three-quarters of a pound each, while the 
choicest birds may weigh nearly twice as much.* 
Many experienced squab-raisers prefer a cross of 
Runts and Homers for fine birds. The mother should 
be a Homer, as these birds are better breeders and 
better mothers than the Runts. 

The health of pigeons should receive close atten- 
tion. They should be given an opportunity to 
bathe, and such conditions should be provided as 
will produce the strongest and most vigorous squabs. 
Light-colored squabs sell best on the market. 

A variety of grains is usually fed. Cracked 
corn, wheat, hulled oats, millet, hemp, and other 
small seeds are much used. Cracked corn is a 
favorite food. Pigeons are particularly fond of salt. 
Many pigeon raisers keep a supply of salt acces- 
sible to the birds at all times. As the old birds 
feed the squabs, it is essential that the parents be 
well fed. A clean sanded floor is an excellent place 
for feeding the old birds. 

♦"Pocket Money Poultry," Norys, p. 142. 



CHAPTER XV 

PREPARING AND MARKETING POULTRY PRODUCTS 

The advance in price of poultry products, par- 
ticularly the meat products, makes their condition 
when they reach the market of greater relative import- 
ance. With low prices the different grades do not 
vary greatly, but with comparatively high prices 
the variation in grades due to quality and appear- 
ance is very marked. 

Those who are preparing poultry for market 
should constantly bear in mind that it is of the 
utmost importance to have the products reach 
the market in the most perfect condition. Flesh 
that is clean and bright always presents a more 
attractive appearance than that which is discol- 
ored. Fowls are sometimes discolored as the result 
of improper methods of packing and shipping. 
Careless packing and rough handling — the latter 
too often given by the employees of railroads and 
express companies — frequently cause a good article 
to reach the market in a poor condition, and it 
therefore brings a low price. It is the privilege of 
every shipper to prepare his fowls in such a manner 
that they may reach the market in as inviting con- 

(302) 



Attractive Appearance Important 303 

dition as possible. The best-appearing fowls always 
sell at a higher price than equally as good stock 
that has been improperly prepared or is untidy. 
Commission men state that properly prepared meat 
will readily sell for twice as much as an equally 
good article that is poorly arranged and uninviting. 

DRESSING POULTRY 

Those who have taken the trouble to study 
the conditions of the markets in the great cities 
say, without hesitation, that the good stock is sold 
first and that the poor and indifferent often becomes 
a drug on the market. New York commission men 
are quite positive in the conviction that shippers who 
send considerable produce to market and who pre- 
pare their product in uniformly fine order readily 
acquire a reputation among buyers. This is always 
an advantage and is a material aid in securing better 
prices. Thorough and careful preparation enable 
shippers to secure a somewhat higher price than the 
same stock would bring if prepared in an indifferent 
manner. 

In order to arrange products for market in the 
best possible manner, it is necessary to study the 
details of killing, dressing and packing, which 
will enable the producer to send not only those 
articles which the market demands, but to send 
them in the best possible condition. Fowls should 



304 Farm Poultry 

not be fed for some time before killing. At least 
twelve hours, and in many cases twenty-four hours, 
should elapse after the last feeding before the kilHng 
takes place. At any rate, the crops of the chickens 
should become entirely empty. Some cities have 
passed ordinances prohibiting the seUing of dressed 
fowls whose crops are not free from food. In such 
markets the law makes it imperative that solid 
food should be withheld long enough before killing 
to permit the crops to become entirely empty. 

If for any reason a few fowls should gain access 
to food just before killing time, and it is not desir- 
able to retain them longer on the farm, they may 
be killed and dressed with the rest, and after pick- 
ing, a short, clean-cut incision may be made through 
the skin, which will permit the removal of the crop. 
An incision should be made in the crop, the crop 
turned inside out, thoroughly cleaned and returned. 
The practice of removing grain from the crop by 
forcing it out through the mouth by external pres- 
sure is not recommended; in fact, it is condemned 
in positive terms by dealers. While in some in- 
stances it may be possible to empty the crop with- 
out breaking the skin, yet it will be necessary to 
use sufficient force in many cases to cause dis-"*^ 
coloration. 

There are two methods used in preparing dressed 
fowls for market. These are known as dry-picking 
and scalding. It may be stated in a general way 



Killing Fowls 305 

that the finest quahty of chickens and turkeys 
commands higher prices when dry-picked. On the 
other hand, lean or thin poultry does not present so 
good an appearance as when scalded and ' 'plumped/' 
as will be explained later, and therefore does not 
sell so well. Ducks and geese are usually scalded, 
with the exception of young, fat ducks, which are 
known on the market as ''green ducks." These 
are usually dry-picked. 

Killing. — Those who are required to perform 
the operation of killing fowls should bear in mind 
that it is desirable to remove all the blood from the 
body that can be withdrawn, and to cause the fowl 
to suffer as little pain as possible. In other words, 
the operator should be as humane as circumstances 
will allow. He may, at the same time, prepare his 
birds in the best possible manner. 

All kinds of fowls are recommended to be killed 
by cutting through the roof of the mouth. This 
will cut through an artery, which will cause the blood 
to flow freely. A sharp-pointed knife should be 
used for this purpose, which should pierce the base of 
the brain; it will cause death at once. It is said 
by experts that a fowl may be killed so quickly 
that the blood will not flow as freely as desired 
and that the feathers will be removed with more 
difficulty, especially if dry-picking is practiced. 
The ideal condition is to have the knife enter the 
brain and paralyze the fowl, and while in this 



306 Farm Poultry 

condition to have it bleed to death. If the fowl 
becomes paralyzed the - muscles are relaxed and 
the feathers are easily removed. Too much stress 
cannot be laid on the importance of thorough 
bleeding. Americans prefer to have all flesh free 
from blood. The keeping quality is thought to be 
considerably enhanced by thorough bleeding. In 
all the operations of killing and picking, care should 
be taken to avoid bruising the flesh, tearing the skin 
or breaking the bones. 

It is customary to suspend fowls by the feet 
before they are killed. In the case of heavy fowls 
they should be so suspended that they will not 
strike each other with their wings when flopping, 
or strike their wings against any hard object. Fowls 
bleed best when suspended head downward at the 
time of killing. 

Dry-picking. — Immediately after* killing,* the 
feathers should be removed carefully and cleanly. 
Dressed fowls should be sent to market, if pos- 
sible, without the skin being broken at any place. 
It is usually customary to commence picking im- 
mediately after sticking. ''Green ducks" and broilers 
are usually picked while the bleeding is taking place. 
As soon as the incision is made with the knife, the 
birds are stunned by a blow on the head and then 
picking commences at once. It is essential in dry- 
picking to remove the feathers as soon as possible 
after the birds are killed. 



Dry-picking and Scalding 307 

When fowls are picked dry, to be shipped in 
cold weather, they should be hung in a cool place 
until thoroughly cold before they are packed. 
Poultry should not be packed until all of the ani- 
mal heat has disappeared. A cool place is prefer- 
able to one so cold that the flesh will freeze quickly. 
If the skin is wet when the fowls are packed, they 
are likely to present a more or less discolored appear- 
ance when offered for sale. When dry-picked fowls 
are to be packed in ice for hot-weather shipment, 
they may be plunged into cold water for a short 
time immediately after picking and then placed in a 
tank of ice water and left for several hours. Some 
extensive duck-raisers make a practice of leaving 
the picked ducks in cold water over night. Either 
ice water or cold spring water may be used for 
this purpose. 

Young fowls, especially ducks, that have many 
pin feathers are sometimes prepared by shaving 
with a sharp knife after the feathers are removed. 
This removes the projecting parts of the pin feathers 
and will help to place the fowl in the best possible 
condition for market. Of course white birds are 
much preferred on this account to colored ones. 
The English use a short, thin-bladed knife in re- 
moving the pin feathers. This operation is called 
'^stubbing," and is generally performed by women 
and children. 

Scalding.—Whm birds are scalded they should 



308 Farm Poultry 

be immersed in hot water immediately after they 
are through bleeding. The water should be a little 
below the boiling-point. It is recommended to 
immerse the birds thoroughly in the water three 
or four times, hfting them out between each immer- 
sion in order to give them a little airing. Immed- 
iately after scalding, chickens and turkeys should 
be picked clean, and care be taken not to break the 
skin. The skin of young fat fowls is more likely 
to tear than that of older ones. As these birds are 
the most valuable, it is necessary to exercise the 
greatest care and skill in preparing them. After 
scalding ducks and geese, it is recommended to 
wrap them in a cloth for about two minutes, in 
order that the down may be more readily removed 
with the feathers. 

Plumping. — Commission men recommend that 
scalded poultry be '^plumped" after picking. That 
is, after the fowls are carefully picked, they should 
be dipped in hot water for a few seconds. This 
water should be about the same temperature as 
that used for scalding, perhaps not quite so warm. 
Then they are removed and placed at once in cold 
water, where they should remain from fifteen to 
twenty minutes. If fowls that are scalded and 
'^plumped^' in this manner are to be shipped dry, 
they should be hung up until the skin becomes 
thoroughly dry. If they are to be packed in ice for 
warm-weather shipment they may be placed in 



Plumping and Packing 309 

cold water for several hours, when they will be ready 
to pack. It is not necessary to dry the fowls when 
they are to be packed in ice. 

In scalding fowls, care should be taken not to 
leave them in the water too long. Over-scald- 
ing will cause the outer surface of the skin to peel 
off, and consequently, they will not present a good 
appearance. If they are under-scalded, the feathers 
cannot be removed so readily, and salesmen find 
that they do not appear so well when exposed for sale. 

PACKING AND SHIPPING 

If the fowls are to be packed dry for cool-weather 
shipm^ent, neat packages that are clean, and as 
light as will carry the contents safely, are to be 
preferred. Uniform packages are preferred to 
various kinds of rough boxes. Clean barrels or 
neatly prepared cases should be used. It is recom- 
mended to use cases or boxes for turkeys and geese, 
and barrels for chickens. In packing poultry, it is 
customary to use clean, dry wheat or rye straw. 
The straw should be free from chaff, and hand- 
threshed is preferred to that which has been threshed 
by a machine. A layer of straw should be placed 
in the bottom of the package, and then alternate 
layers of poultry and straw until the package is full. 
Heavy paper is placed by some poultry shippers 
between the poultry and the sides of the package. 



310 Farm Poultry 

All fowls should be perfectly clean and dry before 
packing. If there is any moisture or blood about 
the head it should be removed with a cloth. If a 
fowl is inchned to bleed a Httle at the mouth, the 
mouth should be thoroughly wiped out and a httle 
cotton inserted • to absorb any liquid that might 
otherwise cause discoloration. 

Packing in ice, — Large barrels are usually em- 
ployed for this purpose. If sugar barrels are used, 
they should be thoroughly washed, preferably 
with hot water, to remove all traces of sugar. Expert 
packers place a layer of cracked ice in the bottom 
of the barrel, then a layer of poultry, then another 
layer of ice, and so on until the barrel is full. After 
the top layer of poultry is in place, there should be 
a layer of cracked ice placed on top. On this layer 
spread a piece of burlap which is sufficiently large 
to cover well the top of the barrel. On this burlap 
some cracked ice may be placed and on top of all 
a large piece of ice. Over all place another piece 
of burlap. This may be held in place by driving 
the top hoop on over the burlap. 

It is recommended to place the fowls heads 
outward, backs up and the feet toward the middle 
of the barrel. That is, the fowls as placed in the 
barrel should slope from the center toward the 
staves. This will cause the ice as it melts to work 
from the center toward the outside of the barrel. 
In transit the ice nearest to the outside of the barrel 



Packing for Shipment 311 

will melt first. It is, therefore, of considerable 
importance to have those parts of the fowls nearest 
to the outside of the barrel cooled by the ice which 
is in the center of the barrel. The water and ice 
from the center will continually work toward the 
outside. 

Frozen poultry. — Poultry is frequently shipped 
during cold weather in a frozen condition. Com- 
mission men recommend that only the best quality 
of poultry should be shipped in this manner. Only 
dry-picked fowls should be selected for freezing. 
When poultry is frozen by natural out-of-door 
temperature, cases may be filled when the fowls are 
thoroughly frozen and the temperature is low. It is 
not necessary to use ice in packing when frozen 
fowls are shipped. Poultry that is frozen soUd may 
be kept for a long time, even for months, provided 
it does not thaw out. 

Marking packages. — If dressed poultry is sent 
to middlemen, each package should be marked with 
the name and address of the commission man and 
also with the name and address of the sender. It 
is klso well to mark on each package its contents, 
whether chickens, fowls, turkeys, ducks or geese, 
and the number of birds or gross weight. It should 
not be neglected to forward advice by mail, giving 
a correct statement of all goods sent. If inferior 
or second-quality fowls are shipped, it is always best 
to st^t^ to the commission man the contents of 



312 Farm Poultry 

the package and also the quaUty. If a poor quahty 
of goods is sent, he is sure to find it out, and it may 
save him considerable annoyance if he knows what 
the package contains before it is opened. 

There seems to be a disposition on the part of 
some shippers, who are not very familiar with the 
business, to refrain from marking packages as to 
quality. Nothing can be made by this practice as 
the quality will be known before a sale is made. 
A good rule is to help the dealer, then you may 
expect favors from him. 

Time of shipment. — When poultry or eggs are 
sent to commission men, it should be borne in mind 
that these products, if for immediate sale, should 
reach them in the middle or early part of the week. 
Many commission men sell very little after Friday 
noon. In a general way, it may be stated that Sat- 
urday is retailers' day; that the retailers are sup- 
posed to have their stock on hand before Saturday, 
and that they do not go to the commission men for 
their supplies during that day. Shipments are often 
made so that they reach their destination late in the 
week and are, therefore, carried over until the begin- 
ning of the next week. 

English and German methods. — The Enghsh 
method of preparing fowls for market is, in many 
respects, very different from that in vogue in the 
United States, and undoubtedly would not be 
acceptable to the most fastidious in this country, 



English Methods 313 

who have become accustomed to other methods of 
dressing and marketing fowls. The EngUsh method 
of preparing young fowls for market, which have been 
fattened by the cramming process and which affords 
a most delicate flesh, is to kill them without bleeding. 
While in the United States great stress is laid on 
removing as much blood as possible from the body, 
the Enghsh prefer not to have the fowl bled at all. 
The operator holds the fowl with his left hand and 
grasps the head with his right. He gives a forcible, 
forward pull with his right hand, holding the head 
at right angles to the neck. He uses enough force 
to dislocate the neck just below the head. This 
kills the fowl at once and frequently causes consid- 
erable blood to settle in the neck, although no blood 
leaves the body. When dry-picking is practiced the 
fowls are picked at once after the neck is dislocated. 
Pickers become very expert in dry-picking fowls. As 
the hand moves back and forth over the body the 
feathers gradually disappear, and in less time than 
it requires to describe the operation properly an 
expert picker will have the feathers removed from a 
good specimen. While the Enghsh do not meet 
our requirements as regards the drawing of blood, 
yet in some respects they take more pains in pre- 
paring the bids for market than Americans do. 
As soon as the birds are picked, they are fre- 
quently placed on what is known as a ^'forming 
machine,'' prepared for the purpose and weighted, 



314 Farm Poultry 

in order to make the bodies appear plump. The 
legs are folded underneath the body, which gives 
a plumper appearance. Before the fowls are placed 
on the machine the breast bone is sometimes broken 
down, though not always. The stern of the fowl 
is pressed firmly against a smooth, hard object in 
order to give it a flattened appearance. This appear- 
ance is still further increased by the use of the ma- 
chine on which the fowls are placed. They are left 
on the shelves until cool. Sometimes, however, 
they are sent to a near-by market before the animal 
heat has left the body. The EngHsh method of 
preparing fowls for market has some advantages 
over that in use in the United States. There is no 
doubt that fowls will appear plumper when cooled 
on a "forming machine," after the EngHsh fashion, 
than when hung up by the feet to cool according 
to the almost universal custom in America. 

The "forming machine,"* see Fig. 101, is made 
by arranging conveniently a series of shelves so that 
each shelf has a backboard placed at nearly a right 
angle to it. The shelves slope backward somewhat, 
which keeps the fowls which are placed upon them 
snugly in the angle formed by the shelf and the 
backboard. The width of the shelf is determined 
somewhat by the size of the fowls to be placed upon 
it. Those who are extensively engaged in fattening 
fowls have different sizes of "forming machines," 

* "Fattening Fowls," E. Cpbl^. 



The Forming Machine 



315 



For medium-sized chickens, shelves about seven 
inches wide are used. The EngHsh become very 
skilful in using the machine to the best advantage. 




Fig. 101. An English "forming machine," which is used to give a plump 
appearance to dressed chickens. 

The operation of preparing the fowls by the use of 
this machine may be briefly described as follows: 
They first squeeze out any matter from the vent, 
then grasp the bird, back uppermost, with both 
hands. The thumbs are placed on the back with the 
fingers clasping the legs, which are bent under- 
neath the body. While held in this position the 
bird is pressed forcibly against a smooth wall or 
post, which forces the "parson's nose" upward so 
that its point is above the back. During this oper- 
ation the body is held firmly, but care is taken not 



316 Farm Poultry 

to mar the skin. The 'bird is placed carefully in 
the machine so that the '^parson's nose" is held 




Fig. 102. A capon as prepared for 
the English market by use of a 
"forming machine." From "Fat- 
tening Fowls," by Cobb. Note de- 
pression on back made by weighted 
board. 

straight up against the backboard, the head and 
neck hanging over the front of the shelf. When 
the shelf is filled with birds that are tightly packed 
side by side, a board three or four inches wide is 
placed on the fowls and heavily weighted. They 
are left in this position until cold. (See Fig. 102.) 
The EngHsh frequently break down the breast 
bone of young fowls that are not very fat, in order 
to give them a plumper appearance. This may 
be done by grasping the fowl with both hands and 
pressing with the thumbs on the breast until the 



Shipping Live Poultry 317 

bone, or the structure which supports it, breaks and 
leaves the fowl with a less prominent breast. The 
Germans frequently break down the breast bone of 
chickens and ducks by striking a smart blow on 
the most prominent part of the bone with a smooth, 
well-rounded paddle. 



SHIPPING LIVE POULTRY 

When hve poultry is shipped long distances 
to market, it should be placed in coops which are 
high enough to permit the fowls to stand erect. 
It is also an advantage, and will give comfort 
to the occupants of the coop, if the top is made 
of slats which are far enough apart so that they may 
straighten up and pass their heads between the slats. 

Shipping crates or coops should be as hght as 
is consistent with the requisite strength. Large 
and heavy crates are awkward to handle and are 
expensive to transport. Large coops on many accounts 
are not so desirable as small ones, particularly if 
they are well filled with heavy fowls. It should be 
borne in mind that these shipping crates or coops 
are required to be handled quickly, and if they are 
heavy, rougher usage is given them than would be 
given to smaller ones. These coops are usually 
sent by express, and the employees of the express 
companies find it necessary to work rapidly and 
often are prevented from handling the coops carefully. 



318 Farm Poultry 

If large coops are used, they should have one 
or more partitions across them so that the fowls will 
not all be thrown to one side, if for any reason the 
coop becomes tilted. When tilted, large coops with- 
out partitions cause great discomfort to the occu- 
pants on the lower side of the coop, and in many 
cases if the coop remains tipped for any consider- 
able time, death may result from suffocation. 

It is important that the fowls of a crate or coop 
should be uniform; that is, the sexes should not be 
shipped in the same division of a crate and young 
fowls should not be sent with old ones. It fre- 
quently happens that a commission man or dealer 
can find ready sale for a uniform lot of fowls but is 
unable to dispose of a mixed lot. It is often incon- 
venient, if not impossible, for him to sort and grade 
them, consequently the fowls are sold at a sacrifice. 
Middlemen and dealers of the great cities are busy 
and are accustomed to do a great deal of business 
in a short time. They do not have the time and 
conveniences for the grading that should be done 
before the fowls are placed in the shipping-crates. 
They want things ready. 

EGGS — CARE AND HANDLING 

It is important that eggs receive proper care 
immediately after they are laid if they are to be 
marketed in a strictlv first-class condition. 




Preparing Eggs for Market 319 

The loss to the country through the marketing 
of deteriorated eggs is great, and any movement 
that will tend to lessen the evil cannot help to be 
of value to the farmer and 
poultryman. *^^It has been 
estimated that about five 
per cent of all the eggs mar- 
keted in this country are 

culled out as ^ ^dirties" caus- 

« 

ing a loss of about one per 

cent on the total value of pig. los. 

. , c i T , A convenient egg-caxrier. 

the egg crop oi the country. 

For this the farmer and poultryman are alone to 

blame." 

Eggs that are not perfectly clean should not 
be sent to market. Indifferent or careless poultry- 
men permit the nests to become fouled, and many 
eggs are not clean when gathered. Eggs may be 
stained from nest material, and they are some- 
times colored with blood, particularly the first 
eggs of pullets. Stains of various kinds may be 
readily removed with a moistened cloth on which 
has been dusted a little cooking soda. Poultrymen 
who make a specialty of fancy eggs are particular 
to send clean eggs to market, and also take consider- 
able pains to ship only those of uniform size and 
color. Uniformity is of great importance when the 
highest prices are to be secured. As a fruit-grower 

* United States Department of Agricxilture, Bureau of Animal In- 
dustry, Circular No. 140. 



320 Farm Poultry 

recognizes that a few large apples when mixed with 
those of medium size do positive injury, so far as 
the market value is concerned, so expert egg pro- 
ducers recognize that a few large eggs mixed with 
those of average size detract from the appearance, 
and, consequently, from the market value. The 
purchaser is attracted by uniformity. If he sees that 
all the eggs on top of the crate are of uniform size, 
color, and shape, he naturally expects uniformity 
throughout. On the other hand, if he finds that 
they are of all sizes, he cannot expect uniformity 
in the lower layers. If one's flock consists of pure- 
bred stock, the eggs should be fairly uniform in 
shape and color, and also in size, although large 
eggs and abnormally small ones will occasionally 
appear; these may be kept for home consumption 
or for the local market. 

Much has been said about marketing eggs in 
a strictly fresh condition. Those who have had 
years of experience, and have established a repu- 
tation that has become almost national, are con- 
vinced that the market will not distinguish between 
an egg one day old and one four days old. An 
egg four or five days old is in a perfectly fresh condi- 
tion, if it has had good treatment. If it has been 
subjected to the heat of an incubator for that length 
of time, it would not be fresh. Eggs may be sent to 
market hundreds of miles by express and placed 
in the hands of the consumer when not more than 



Deteriorated Eggs 321 

a few days old. Whenever a poultryman who 
aims to produce the finest quahty of eggs desires to 
estabhsh a reputation for himself, it will probably 
be necessary for him, at first, to send his eggs under 
a guaranty that they were produced by his own 
flock, and that he knows them to be strictly first- 
class in every respect. 

Many deteriorated eggs are shipped to market 
and are there sorted out; some are known as "heated 
eggs." These are fertile eggs that have been sub- 
jected to a sufficiently high temperature to per- 
ceptibly start the development of the germ which 
if continued long enough would produce the fully 
developed chick. This may have been done in the 
nest, perhaps under a broody hen, or by keeping the 
eggs in too warm a place in the barn or house, or 
during the time occupied in traveling from the farm 
to the market where the poor eggs are culled out. 
The loss from this cause alone is thought to be several 
times that caused by eggs becoming spoiled. 

SPOILED EGGS 

Evaporated or "shrunken'^ eggs are those that 
have been allowed to dry out through the natural 
process of evaporation. They are readily detected 
by the increased size of the air-chamber which 
shows that the egg is not fresh. Eggs kept for some 
time in a dry, well-ventilated room lose so much 



322 Farm Poultry 

moisture that they cannot be sold as fresh and are 
culled out as ^'shrunken." 

There is another large class of deteriorated eggs 
known as "rots." These eggs have become totally 
unfit for food through bacterial contamination. 
The loss to dealers from this source is great, which 
eventually must be borne either directly or indi- 
rectly by the producer. 

It is to be regretted that there has not been 
developed in this country a more rapid and satis- 
factory method of gathering eggs from the farm 
and transporting them to the consumer, in order 
that this great loss might be lessened as far as pos- 
sible and the consumer be given a greater guarantee 
as to quality. 

It has been suggested that in dairy districts 
where daily trips are made from the farm to the 
creamery or skimming station, that fresh eggs be 
delivered with the milk. This would enable the 
creamery to make frequent shipments and thus 
prove an efficient agency in the handling of this 
important food product. 

Shipping-cases. — Eggs are usually sent to mar- 
ket in shipping-crates which are constructed speci- 
ally for this purpose. The standard-size crate 
holds thirty dozens. (See Fig. 104.) These crates, 
or shipping-cases, contain trays which fit into the 
outer case, one above the other. The trays are 
divided by pasteboard partitions into many sepa- 



Shipping Cases for Eggs 



323 




Fig. 104. A thirty-dozen-egg shipping case. 



rate compartments, each compartment holding one 
egg. Some shipping-cases have wire springs instead 
of the pasteboard partitions to hold the eggs. The 
English prefer what 
is known as the Irish 
shipping-case. This 
consists of a case not 
unlike a small dry- 
goods box. In this 
is placed a layer of 
sea grass similar to 
that used in packing 
china and glassware. The grass is placed in the 
form of a shallow hen's nest. This is filled with 
eggs. On these is placed another layer of sea grass 
and another layer of eggs,, the layers of eggs and 
sea grass alternating until the case is nearly full. 
More sea grass is then put on and the cover 
fastened by nails or screws. While this case is 
preferred by the English, it is doubtful whether it 
would be sufficient to withstand the rough usage 
given by the American express companies and freight 
lines. 

Many commission men prefer to have eggs 
shipped to them in barrels, packed in dry, fine- 
cut, clean wheat or rye straw. Barrels are strong, 
rigid packages for their weight, and are well adapted 
for shipping. A barrel will hold about seventy 
dozen, if properly packed. 



324 Farm, Poultry 

PRESERVING EGGS 

During the spring and early summer months, 
when a large proportion of the hens that are kept 
on farms are laying, the price of eggs is frequently 
very low, particularly in local markets where most 
of the farm eggs are sold. In such times many 
eggs are preserved until late fall, when the price 
is usually the highest. Many persons make a busi- 
ness of preserving eggs in order to reap the benefit 
of the advance in price; others preserve them in 
times of plenty for home consumption when the 
hens are not laying. Many others would attempt 
to keep them if they but knew of a simple and 
safe way of preserving them. To such persons it 
may be said that there is no well-known way of 
keeping eggs absolutely fresh for any considerable 
length of time. There are several methods, however, 
that are sufficiently satisfactory to warrant the 
preservation of eggs both for the market and for 
home use. Preserved eggs are thought to be injured 
by cold sooner than fresh ones. The following gives 
the results of experiments made in Germany with 
various preservatives:* 

'The Berliner Markthallenzeitung reports about 
experiments made for the purpose of securing the 
most rational method of preserving eggs. . . . 
Twenty methods were selected for these experi- 

* United States Consular Reports, Dec, 1897, pp. 563, 564.— Thieriot. 



Egg Preservatives 325 

ments. In the first days of July, four hundred 
fresh eggs were prepared according to these methods 
(twenty eggs for each method), to be opened for 
use at the end of the month of February. . . . 
After eight months of preservation the eggs were 
opened for use, and the twenty different methods 
employed gave the most heterogeneous results . . . 

1. Eggs put for preservation in salt water were all bad. 

2. Eggs wrapped in paper, 80 per cent bad. 

3. Eggs preserved in a solution of salicylic acid and glycerin, 

80 per cent bad. 

4. Eggs rubbed with salt, 70 per cent bad. 

5. Eggs preserved in bran, 70 per cent bad. 

6. Eggs provided with a cover of paraffin, 70 per cent bad. 

7. Eggs varnished with a solution of glycerin and sahcylic 

acid, 70 per cent bad. 

8. Eggs put in boiling water for twelve to fifteen seconds, 

50 per cent bad. 

9. Eggs treated with a solution of alum, 50 per cent bad. 

10. Eggs put in a solution of saHcyHc acid, 50 per cent bad. 

11. Eggs varnished with water-glass (wasserglas) 40 per cent 

bad. 

12. Eggs varnished with collodion, 40 per cent bad. 

13. Eggs covered with lac, 40 per cent bad. 

14. Eggs varnished with sward, 20 per cent bad. 

15. Eggs preserved in ashes of wood, 20 per cent bad. 

16. Eggs treated with boric acid and water-glass, 20 per cent 

bad. 

17. Eggs treated with manganate of potassa, 20 per cent bad. 

18. Eggs varnished with vaseline, all good. 

19. Eggs preserved in lime-water, all good. 

20. Eggs preserved in a solution of water-glass, all good. 

^'The last three methods are consequently to be 



326 Farm Poultry 

considered the best ones, especially the preserva- 
tion in a solution of water-glass, as varnishing the 
eggs with vaseline takes too much time, and the 
treatment with lime-water sometimes communi- 
cates to the eggs a disagreeable odor and taste." 

Water-glass.^ — ''We tried the keeping of eggs 
with sodium siHcate (water-glass) with good results. 
Sodium silicate is a compound containing silicon, 
sodium and oxygen in the proportion of one, two 
and three respectively. It can be purchased from 
druggists in the form of a semi-fluid resembling 
thick sugar syrup, for which it might easily be 
mistaken. 

''An experiment was conducted in our depart- 
ment for the purpose of determining the most 
effective degree of concentration. The result of 
the experiment is of considerable importance, inas- 
much as the cost of the mixture may be greatly 
reduced without destroying its value. 

"On the 27th of May, we took twelve dozen 
eggs, all known to be perfectly fresh, and prepared 
the following solutions: 

No. 1. One part of water-glass in the semi-fluid form to ten 

parts water. 
No. 2. One part water-glass in the semi-Hquid form to fifteen/ 

parts water. 
No. 3. One part water-glass in the semi-liquid form to twenty 

parts water. 

* 24th Annual Report Ontario Agricultural College, pp. 193, 194. 



Water-glass as a Preservative 327 

'The first solution was found to be too strong, 
as it caused the eggs to float. The second was 
all right in this respect. The third, though much 
weaker, gave perfect satisfaction. We divided 
the eggs into three lots of four dozen each, and 
put one lot into each solution. We tested them 
from time to time, and in every case found them 
perfectly fresh; and, on breaking, we noticed that 
the yolk stood up exactly as in new-laid eggs, and 
did. not show the shghtest tendency towards decay. 

''We tested one-half dozen from .each solution 
on the first of December, and could not detect 
any difference in the appearance or quaUty in the 
eggs out of the different solutions, all being per- 
fectly fresh after being in the solution six months. . . 

"In order to use water-glass successfully, the 
following plan should be adopted: Take one part 
by measure of water-glass, say one gallon, and 
twenty parts by measure of water that has been 
boiled (twenty gallons), and allow the water to 
cool; then place the water-glass and water in a 
vessel; stir the ingredients well together; put the 
eggs into the tub or vat in which they are to be 
kept, and pour the solution over them until the 
topmost layer is completely covered. The reason 
for boiling the water is to kill any putrefactive 
germs which may be in the water at the time. If 
water-glass is purchased by the cwt., it should be 
procured for $2.50 to $3 per cwt. (112 lbs.). 



328 Farm Poultry 

''So far as we know this is the best solution yet 
tried for the preservation of eggs. When taken 
out of it the eggs have the appearance of fresh- 
laid eggs, and when they are broken the yolk stands 
up exactly as in new-laid eggs, without showing 
the slighest tendency toward decay. It is first 
necessary, before boiling eggs that have been kept 
in this solution, as in lime pickle, to puncture the 
shell with a needle, otherwise the shell will crack 
as soon as placed in hot water, owing to the pores of 
the shell being closed." 

The reports of tests, made with water-glass as 
an egg preservative, from different parts of the coun- 
try would indicate considerable variation as to the 
strength or thickness of commercial water-glass. The 
Storrs (Conn.) Experiment Station recommends that 
the mixture be made in the proportion of nine quarts 
of boiled water to one quart of water-glass. At 
any rate the specific gravity of the preserving liquid 
must be low enough to allow the eggs to sink readily. 

The following precautions should be quite strictly 
observed : 

Use strictly fresh eggs 

Keep the eggs, immersed in the preservative, in 
a dry, cool place where the variation in temperature 
is comparatively slight. 

Do not attempt to preserve cracked eggs. 

Keep all of the eggs submerged in the liquid at 
all times. 



Lime-water Preservative 329 

The preservative should not be used for more 
than one year. 

Lime-water. — A most satisfactory hme-water 
preservative may be made of the following in- 
gredients: 

^ bushel fresh quicklime. 
15 pounds salt. 

I pound cream of tartar. 
40 gallons of water. 

Slake the lime thoroughly and add the water 
and salt. Stir it well. Dissolve the cream of tartar 
in a Uttle water and add to the whole. Stir well. 
Let the solution stand until it is fully settled. Remove 
the clear liquid by dipping or by means of a siphon. 
Place the liquid in a cask or tank and put in the 
eggs. It is desirable to keep the eggs in a cool place 
that has an even temperature. Have at least one 
and one-half inches of the liquid above the eggs. 
New oak casks should not be used on account of 
the habihty to color the eggs. 

Cold storage. — Eggs that are kept in large quan- 
tities by dealers are placed chiefly in cold storage. 
A low, even temperature is maintained by the use 
of ice, or by means of ice machines. Ice machines 
have wholly superseded the use of natural ice in 
large establishments, 



CHAPTER XVI 

DISEASES AND ENEMIES 

It would require an exhaustive treatise by one 
who had given years of study to the subject to 
present in a thorough manner a discussion of the 
various phases of the many diseases to which farm 
poultry are subject. Many of the troubles are 
insidious and are not yet well understood. However, 
a few general hints on the more common diseases, 
and a discussion of some of the parasites, may be 
valuable to those who have not the time or incli- 
nation to study the subject in detail. The one 
paramount safeguard against disease is thorough 
cleanliness; then avoid introducing infected fowls. 

LICE 

Various kinds of domesticated fowls and wild 
birds are infested with parasites that are known 
under the popular name of 'lice." There are 
several species of lice which infest chickens. Some 
kinds are found only on a certain class of poul- 
try, while others are sometimes found on more 
than one kind. There are at least four 

(330) 



Lice and Filth 331 

species which are very troublesome to chicken- 
raisers, particularly to those who do not keep 
their poultry-yards and -houses in a cleanly con- 
dition. Filth and dampness seem to favor the 
propagation of these pests. Fowls are naturally 
cleanly, particularly those that have their liberty 
and, consequently, live under conditions nearest 
the natural ones. Weak fowls are always more 
likely to be troubled with Uce than are strong, 
healthy, vigorous ones. Many years ago it was 
thought that filth and dampness produced lice. 
While these conditions undoubtedly favor the 
increase and development of these pests, yet they 
can only be produced in a flock by the introduction 
of an infected bird or by placing the fowls in infected 
quarters. The hfe-history of these parasites is 
so well known that it is not thought possible for 
them to be introduced in any other way. The 
species of lice which infest chickens vary consider- 
ably as to their shape and size, yet in their habits 
they closely resemble each other. They are very 
small insects, varying from one-fifth to less than 
one-fiftieth of an inch in length. These parasites 
rarely pierce the skin and suck the blood, as do 
mites and fleas. They cause much annoyance by 
crawling over the surface, and sometimes they 
bite the skin in a way that causes considerable 
irritation and perhaps some inflammation. When 
fowls are once infested they may become unthrifty 



332 Farm Poultry 

and unprofitable if not given proper care. It has 
been estimated that a single pair of Hce may pro- 
duce, through the quickly successive generations 
which would be reared within three months, more 
than 100,000 individuals. As the weaker fowls 
of the flock are most Hkely to be infested, lice are 
often detected by the unthrifty condition of such 
birds. Upon examination, large numbers of these 
lice may be seen crawling over the skin underneath 
the feathers. They will likely be most prevalent 
on those parts which the fowl cannot reach with 
the beak. 

Remedies, — Fowls may be effectually treated 
in several ways. Substances may be put upon the 
bird which will poison the Hce, or the pests may 
be driven off by making the fowl an uncongenial 
home for them, or they may be killed by the appli- 
cation of substances, hke oil, which stop the breathing 
pores and thus cause them to die of suffocation. 
The last plan is preferable in the case of the young 
chickens and weak fowls. Little chickens when 
but a few days old are frequently infested with 
lice from the mother or from the surroundings. 
As these little chickens are delicate, a few lice will 
cause serious trouble. In this case, it is usually 
advisable to place a few drops of oil on the head 
and perhaps on the wings and throat of each chicken 
Sweet oil or lard oil may be used. Other oils of 
about the same consistency may answer the pur- 



Remedies for Lice 333 

pose quite as well. Older fowls should be given 
an opportunity to take dust baths. This is nature's 
method and is effectual if the fowls will bathe 
thoroughly. Many of the heavier fowls, however, 
do not care to take dust baths frequently, nor to 
do the work thoroughly when they undertake it; 
consequently it is frequently necessary to use 
artificial methods to kill or drive away the lice, 
when they once become well estabhshed on adult 
fowls. Powdered sulphur or fresh insect powder 
dusted well among the feathers is found to be effi- 
cient. Fowls are sometimes placed in compara- 
tively tight boxes with their heads protruding 
through close-fitting openings, the box then being 
filled with sulfur fumes for several minutes. This 
is said to completely destroy the pests and in no 
way to injure the fowls. 

When poultry-houses become infested with lice 
a complete cleansing of the building is required. 
Movable fixtures should be taken out and the 
walls thoroughly washed and cleansed. The interior 
should be freshly whitewashed or sprayed with 
chlorides or other efficient insecticides. Kerosene 
emulsion is effective if the spraying is thoroughly 
done. Some modern spraying machines are so 
constructed that kerosene oil may be mixed with 
water in a fine spray to answer every purpose. This 
method is easier than to apply the kerosene in the 
form of a soap emulsion. 



334 Farm Poultry 

MITES 

These parasites are frequently called "lice," 
although they are entirely different from the ani- 
mals described under that name. Mites are usually 
smaller than lice. The red poultry mite is one of 
the greatest pests. It is frequently called the 
"summer louse" and is found in great numbers 
in the poultry-house and other places frequented 
by fowls in the . summer time. It is frequently 
seen about cracks and crevices, underneath and 
about the perches, and also in the nests, partic- 
ularly those of sitting hens. It multiphes rapidly, 
so that if a few have been introduced into a 
poultry-house, the place may become overrun within 
a short time. 

The habit of these pests is very different from 
that of lice. The mites breed in cracks and chinks 
about the perches and nests and go on the body 
of the fowls at night to feed. They pierce the skin 
and fill themselves with blood. Though they are 
small, each insect can remove an appreciable amount 
of blood. The fowl not only suffers from the loss 
of blood but is disturbed during the night when 
it should have perfect rest and be free from annoy- 
ance. Sitting hens are so much annoyed that they 
are compelled to leave the nests in order to relieve 
themselves of the parasites. If the nests and 
perches, and the cracks and crevices about them, are 



Mites — Gapes 335 

kept free from the pests, the fowls will not be dis- 
turbed. Free use of kerosene oil or kerosene emulsion 
about the nests and perches will usually suffice. 
Some manufacturers have taken advantage of 
the habit of these pests and construct perches 
which will not permit them to pass from the places 
of concealment about the poultry house to the 
body of the fowl, each perch being supported by 
means of slender iron supports, the bases of which 
are placed in small cups filled with oil. 

A Httle care and watchfulness on the part of 
the poultry attendant to keep the poultry-house 
entirely free from mites will protect the fowls 
from these pests. 

GAPES 

Gapes sometimes destroy large numbers of 
small chickens; in fact, on some farms during 
certain seasons it seems almost impossible to rear 
broods of young chickens that are entirely free from 
it, particularly if the young chickens are kept under 
the ordinary conditions. It is well known that 
gapes are caused by a small worm known as Synga- 
mus trachealis. This worm is of a reddish color 
and varies in length from three-eighths to three- 
fourths of an inch. The two sexes are united, 
which fact has given rise to the name of ''branched 
worm.'^ On account of its color it is also some- 



336 Farm Poultry 

times known as the ''red worm." It is stated that 
the male is always attached to the female, the for- 
mer being the smaller of the two. These worms 
are found in the windpipe or trachea of the chickens, 
where they are attached to the membraneous 
lining of this air-passage. They are nourished by 
sucking the blood of the fowl and cause consider- 
able irritation and inflammation, particularly if 
the chickens are weak. The stronger and more 
robust undoubtedly are considerably inconve- 
nienced, but the attacks are not severe enough to 
prevent them from making a fairly good growth. 
It is stated, on good authority, that as many as 
thirty or forty of these worms have been found 
in a single chicken. 

, Dr. H. D. Walker, Newburgh, N. Y., states 
that the earthworm is the natural host of this pest. 
Chickens, robins and other birds have become 
infested with the gape worm by feeding them infested 
earthworms. Comparatively few gape worms are 
sufficient to destroy the life of weak young chickens. 
Many more, however, would not necessarily destroy 
a vigorous bird, either young or adult. These 
worms are frequently dislodged by coughing or 
sneezing. When they are thrown out in this manner 
other fowls may eat them and in turn become 
infected. 

Remedies. — Keep little chickens in a dry place 
and away from infected ground. As the weak 



Remedies and Preventive Measures 337 

fowls are likely to succumb first, it is of the utmost 
importance that the brood be kept in as healthy 
and vigorous condition as possible. 

It is recommended to dislodge the worms by 
introducing into the trachea a horsehair, doubled 
so as to form a loop, then give it several turns, 
and slowly withdraw it. As the loop is withdrawn 
the dislodged worms may be removed or coughed 
up by the fowl. This operation repeated several 
times will frequently give relief to aggravated 
cases. Other good authorities recommend the 
introduction of a feather which has been moist- 
ened with turpentine. The turpentine will cause 
the dislodgment of the worms and the chickens 
will sneeze or cough them up. 

Some practical poultry-keepers recommend 
placing an infested brood in a barrel or compar- 
atively tight box and dusting in the the compart- 
ment a considerable quantity of fine air-slaked 
lime. The infested chickens will be required to 
breathe the air heavily laden with this fine Hme, 
which will cause the dislodgment of many of the 
worms. WTiile this treatment is rather severe 
and may cause the death of some of the weakest 
of the birds, yet it will sometimes prove efficacious 
in saving the larger proportion of a brood which 
otherwise might succumb. 

Preventive measures are more satisfactory than 
remedial ones. Keep the chickens in a dry place 



338 Farm Poultry 

and in as healthy and vigorous a condition as pos- 
sible, and away from sources of contamination. 

EOUP 

Roup is a common disease among farm poul- 
try and one that often causes serious loss. When 
roup is permitted to remain in a flock unchecked, 
the loss from death alone may be considerable, 
and the loss occasioned by many sick birds which 
are for a long time thoroughly incapacitated for 
usefulness may be quite as great. Roup is con- 
sidered contagious by the most eminent authori- 
ties. It passes from one fowl to another of the 
same flock, and may be carried from one flock to 
another by the introduction of infected birds. 
It has been considered by some as being pro- 
duced by unfavorable conditions. This is not 
strictly true. Undoubtedly unsanitary conditions 
are potent factors in the development of the dis- 
ease when the fowls are once exposed. Tender 
fowls, or those requiring particularly good care, 
are more susceptible to roup than are the more 
healthy or robust. The introduction of the 
specific organism of the disease is necessary 
for its development; hence it is a communicable 
disease. 

Symptoms. — Among the first symptoms that 
will be noticed is a thin, watery discharge from 



Roujp — Symptoms and Treatment 339 

the nostrils, followed by obstructed breathing. A 
few cases of harsh breathing that had not pre- 
viously been manifest should be looked upon with 
suspicion. These cases may be readily detected 
by passing through the poultry house in the eve- 
ning when all is quiet. In the later stages of the 
disease the watery discharge at the nostrils becomes 
thicker and more sticky, which causes frequent 
sneezing in order to prevent the air-passages from 
becoming completely closed. 

Dr. D. E. Salmon says* that the inflammation 
extends, as the disease advances, from the mem- 
brane of the nasal cavities to those of other con- 
necting passages. As the orbital space which sur- 
rounds the eye connects with the nasal passage, 
this is frequently involved. The membrane of 
the orbital cavity becomes inflamed and swollen, 
and in severe cases apparently forces the eye from 
its socket. The sides of the head become unduly 
swollen and the fowl frequently becomes entirely 
blind, the birds presenting a most unsightly appear- 
ance. Breathing is performed with difficulty, and 
a thick discharge at this time, may escape from 
the nostrils. Death frequently follows after these 
serious symptoms. 

Treatment. — Prevent healthy birds from becom- 
ing contaminated by removing them to clean 
quarters, or by the removal of the sick birds and 

* "The Diseases of Poultry," pp. 32-34. 



340 Farm Poultry , 

thoroughly cleaning and disinfecting the poultry- 
house. Give wholesome and easily digested food 
and keep the fowls in as healthy and vigorous 
condition as possible. Antiseptic solutions are 
to be injected into the nostrils and on the roof 
of the mouth. If large swelUngs have appeared 
which are filled with cheesy pus, this should 
be removed and these cavities be injected with 
antiseptics. The following solutions are recom- 
mended: 

1. Two per cent solution of creoline. 

2. Two per cent solution of carbolic acid. 

3. Peroxide of hydrogen and water, equal parts. 

4. One grain of permanganate of potash to an 

ounce of water. 

5. Kerosene oil mixed with equal parts of lard 

or olive oil. Some poultrymen recommend 

the use of pure kerosene oil, a drop in 

each nostril of the infected fowl. 

When diphtheritic roup develops, white patches 

are frequently seen on the roof of the mouth and 

on the connecting air-passages. Later these patches 

become more or less yellow. Dr. Salmon also 

says* that the sick birds should be placed in clean, 

warm, well-ventilated quarters, where they can 

be readily examined and where they will not be 

exposed to drafts of air. In other words, these 

quarters should be most favorable for invalids. 

*"The Diseases of Poultry," pp. 224, 225. 



Treatment for Roup 341 

He recommends 'the application, to the diphtheritic 
spots in the mouth and eyes, of a 2 per cent solution 
of carboHc acid in water or a 2 per cent solution 
of creoline, and that some of the same should be 
injected in small quantities into the nostrils. The 
removal of this diphtheritic membrane is recom- 
mended if it can be accomphshed without bleed- 
ing. Tincture of iodine has been apphed to the 
diseased parts successfully. Boric acid, 15 grains 
to an ounce of water, may be applied to the roof 
of the mouth, nostrils and eyes. This apphcation 
is often made with benefit, and is considered 
safe. Dr. Salmon further recommends the use 
of chlorate of potassium and sahcyhc acid in 
the following proportions: 2 grains of sahcylic 
acid and 35 grains of chlorate in 1 ounce of 
water, to which may be added 1 ounce of glycer- 
ine. This should be apphed two or three times a 
day on the diphtheritic spots and may be given 
internally in doses of about a teaspoonful to 
adult fowls. 

"Disinfect thoroughly by sprinkUng the walls of 
the building and the ground frequented by the 
diseased fowls with carbohc acid water (1% ounces 
of carboHc acid to a quart of water). Wash feed- 
ing-troughs, water-dishes, etc., with the same 
solution. Cover the earth with straw or boards 
and keep the fowls perfectly dry. 

''Mix with the soft food several hours before 



342 Farm Poultry 

feeding, as a curative and a preventive, a pinch 
of the following mixture for each fowl: 

Hyposulfite of soda 50 grams 

Salicylate of soda 50 " 

Pulverized yellow gentian 200 " 

Pulverized ginger 200 " 

Pulverized sulfate of iron . 100 " 

"Give sulfate of iron in the drinking-water, 
1^2 grams to a quart of water."* 

CHOLERA 

Dr. Salmon statesj that fowl cholera attacks 
chickens, geese, ducks, turkeys, pigeons, and in 
fact all varieties of domesticated fowls. The 
infection often takes place through drinking-water, 
or partaking of food that is contaminated by the 
excrement of sick birds. It is possible for fowls 
to be infected through wounds or by means of 
the germs which may be inhaled in the^ form of 
dust. He further states that the disease is gen- 
erally brought in by the introduction of infected 
birds or with eggs that have been purchased for 
hatching. This disease may be communicated 
to mice and rabbits by inoculation. 

Symptoms. — "The symptoms of American fowl 
cholera were first described by Dr. Salmon in 

* "Journal D'Agriculture Pratique," 1895, Tome 2, pp. 913, 914. 
t "The Diseases of Poultry," pp. 233, 234. 



Fowl Cholera 343 

1880. They include the voiding of feces, of which 
the part that is normally white is yellow. The 
white part of the feces is excreted by the kidneys, 
and the yellow discoloration of this excrement 
is usually the first indication of disease. Shortly 
thereafter the droppings become thin and fluid, 
and they are voided frequently and enveloped 
by a layer of thin mucus. The fowl becomes 
depressed; it stands still or assumes a sitting pos- 
ture, goes into a sunny, warm place, if possible. 
The plumage becomes ruffled, the head is drawn 
down, the comb becomes pale and bloodless, and the 
appetite is depressed or lost. The depression and 
torpidity of the fowl increase until it seems to 
become unconscious. . . . The bird then becomes 
thin and weak, and sometimes passes into a 
stupor and dies. In other cases, it may have 
convulsions prior to death."* 

Treatment. — ''The treatment of individual fowls 
afflicted with such a highly contagious disease 
as true fowl cholera is not to be recommended, 
because, in the first place, so long as the infected 
fowl remains around there is danger that its poi- 
sonous products may be carried to healthy birds; 
secondly, there is little chance of curing it and it 
is hardly worth while to try. 

''The important point in this connection is the 
prevention of disease, and fowl cholera can usu- 

* "Diseases and Enemies of Poultry," Pearson & Warren, Bulletin 
No. 17, Pennsylvania State Department of Agriculture. 



344 Farm Poultry 

ally be stopped by preventing the introduction 
of fowls suffering from it, or that come from infected 
localities. If the disease is once introduced the most 
stringent measures should be enforced as regards 
cleanliness, disinfection, and the total destruction 
of the carcasses of the dead birds. The birds that 
are still healthy should be removed from the flock 
and placed in a wholesome locality. The drop- 
pings from the diseased fowls should be burned or 
thoroughly disinfected by mixing with a 10 per 
cent solution of sulfuric acid or with a quantity 
of lime equal in amount to the manure. The build- 
ing should be disinfected by cleaning it very thor- 
oughly, flushing the floor with a saturated solution 
of copperas and spraying the interior with a 5 per 
cent solution of carbolic acid, followed by white- 
washing. If the pens and runs can be abandoned 
for a year and grass or crops grown in them, this 
is the best plan, but if it is not possible to do this, 
they should be cleaned with as great thoroughness 
as possible and slaked lime scattered over the 
surface of the earth, which should be plowed. 

'Tt should be remembered that the germs of 
fowl cholera may be carried in the feathers, so 
that a perfectly healthy fowl, coming from a dis- 
eased flock, may carry the disease to another flock 
a long distance away. These germs may also be 
carried on the shoes and clothing of persons; by 
vermin^ as rats or mice^ or they may become attached 



White Diarrhoea 345 

to light objects, such as leaves, and be carried 
long distances by the wind. If the disease exists 
among the fowls along the water-course, those 
lower down the stream may receive the germs with 
their water-supply. So, whenever this disease pre- 
vails in a locality, one cannot guard his fowls too 
carefully."* 

BACILLARY WHITE DIARRHEA OF YOUNG CHICKS 

The term 'Vhite diarrhea" undoubtedly has, for 
many years, been used to designate a variety of 
bowel disorders in which the discharges of the 
digestive organs are more or less whitish in char- 
acter and show to a greater or less extent symptoms 
of diarrhea. But not until recently has it been 
determined beyond question that the most serious 
of these disorders is due to a specific bacillus Bac- 
terium pullorum. It has long been known that the 
so-called white diarrhea was sometimes one of the 
most serious and fatal disorders to which httle 
chickens are subject, but knowledge as to the true 
nature of the disease has come through recent 
investigation and study. 

f Symptoms of bacillary white diarrhea. — As in 
many other diseases the symptoms may vary within 
certain limits in the individuals affected . . . 

* "Diseases and Enemies of Poultry," Bulletin No. 17, Pennsyl- 
vania State Department of Agriculture. 

t Storrs (Conn.) Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No. GO. 



346 Farm Poultry 

but most of the following will be apparent in epi- 
demics of any considerable size. The earliest deaths 
may occur within a very short time after hatching 
without any prominent "symptoms except perhaps 
weakness and lack of vitality. The characteristic 
whitish discharge from the vent soon makes its 
appearance in the flock . . . the discharge may 
be slight or profuse, in color white or creamy, some- 
times mixed with brown. The voided matter has a 
more or less sticky or glairy character. It may 
streak down below the vent or may cling to the down 
sufficiently to seal up the vent. . . . Chicks 
soon become listless and sleepy ... wings droop 
or project slightly beyond .the body, with feathers 
ruffled. In acute cases the eyes are closed and 
chicks become indifferent to everything about them. 
Frequently when endeavoring to void excreta the 
chicks utter a shrill twitter apparently a cry of 
pain. The weakling is almost always big-bellied, 
the abdomen protruding to the rear so that it 
bunches out behind. . . With few exceptions deaths 
from typical bacillary white diarrhea occur while 
the chicks are under one month of age. Chicks 
which have had bacillary white diarrhea seem to 
be greatly weakened in constitution and fall an 
easy victim to disorders which would be easily re- 
sisted by normal chicks. 

'^The mother hen is the original source of infec- 
tion of the chick . . . although the disease may 



Prevention of yVhite Diarrhea 347 

be transmitted through the food during the first 
three or four days of the chick's fife. 

"Prevention. — Since the disease cannot appar- 
ently be transmitted throtigh the food supply after 
the chicks have reached the age of three or four days, 
every means should be pursued to prevent the spread 
of the infection during this critical period. We sug- 
gest the segregation of the chicks in small lots during 
this interval; perfect disinfection and cleanUness of 
brooders and brood coops; food and water supplied 
in such a manner as to prevent contamination by 
the droppings; the use in the brooder of a Uberal 
amount of fine absorptive litter which will quickly 
cover and seal up the droppings. (For this purpose 
we have used alfalfa meal with much satisfaction.) 

"Raise and maintain the vigor and vitahty of the 
breeding stock and chicks by every reasonable 
means known to poultrymen. ... 

''If the breeding stock proves infected there are 
two courses of procedure open; (a) market the entire 
flock or refrain from using their eggs for hatching or 
(b) install trap nests in the breeding-pens . . and 
ascertain which individual hens are producing 
infected chicks, and remove them." 

SCALY LEGS 

This disease is caused by a parasite somewhat 
similar to that of the mange of the cat and dog. 



348 - Farm Poultry 

The disease is considered to be contagious, though 
it does not spread rapidly. It is most frequently 
noticed in old fowls of the heavy breeds, as of the 
Asiatic types. Ducks and geese are not affected with 
this trouble. 

Treatment, — Soak with oil — sweet oil or lard 
oil mixed with kerosene is recommended. Kero- 
sene alone is sometimes applied with most excel- 
lent results. However, it is a somewhat harsher 
treatment than is necessary. Those who keep on 
hand a stock solution of kerosene emulsion may 
find this a most excellent remedy for scaly legs. 
It should be applied thoroughly. A few applica- 
tions are usually sufficient. If thorough work is to 
be accomplished the poultry-houses should be 
disinfected. 

FREEZING 

Valuable fowls sometimes die from frosted combs 
and wattles. Remedial measures are not so satis- 
factory as preventive ones. The most that can be 
done is to give good nursing. If the fowls are dis- 
covered to be frosted before the organs affected 
have thawed out, the frost should be removed by 
applications of cold water or snow. The gradual 
thawing of the frozen parts may sometimes save 
them. After thawing has taken place, the parts 
should be smeared with grease, vaseline or cosmoline. 



• ' Freezing — Egg-eating 349 

It is thought to be advantageous to keep the fowls 
in a fairly cool room. 

BUMBLE FOOT 

Bumble foot is caused by bruises on the bottom 
of the feet. These bruises are sometimes followed 
by swellings which suppurate and become greatly 
enlarged if they are not lanced and the pus per- 
mitted to escape. Causes which produce bruises 
should be removed. Heavy fowls that are required 
to fly from rather high perches and to alight on 
hard and uneven surfaces are liable to suffer from 
bumble foot. In serious cases it is advisable to 
inclose the feet in little bags filled with poultice 
in order to induce free suppuration. If the pus 
is not permitted to escape, it 'becomes cheesy and 
finally dries sufficiently to form a hard mass, which 
produces a permanent enlargement. 

EGG-EATING 

This habit sometimes becomes a most serious 
vice in the poultry-yard. It spreads from fowl 
to fowl. Fowls become very fond of eggs when 
they once learn to eat them. The habit usually 
starts through accident, either by eggs being broken 
or frozen. If eggs are not permitted to freeze in 
the poultry-house, and care is taken to pre^^ent 



350 Farm Poultry 

their being broken, the habit is not hkely to be 
contracted. As soon as it is discovered that a fowl 
has the habit well formed this fowl should be removed 
from the others before the habit is spread. Unless 
the bird is a specially valuable one, it is often advis- 
able to inflict the death penalty. 

FEATHER-EATING 

Feather-eating, like egg-eating, may become a 
most objectionable habit. Fowls of active breeds 
that are closely confined are more likely to learn 
feather-eating or feather-pulling than those that 
are given wide range and plenty of wholesome 
food. Close confinement with improper ration 
will often lead to this vice. When once the habit 
is well formed it may become most troublesome. 
Fowls pluck the feathers from each other. Those 
on the back at the root of the tail or high up on 
the breast are likely to be plucked first. If but 
few fowls have learned the habit, it is sometimes 
recommended to file the beak so that the front 
and sides will not close tightly. This will prevent 
the bird from pulhng feathers but will permit it 
to eat ordinary food readily. When several fowls 
of a flock. have but slightly contracted the habit, a 
wide range with change of diet, including plenty of 
animal food, will usually suffice to correct the evil. 
Above all, permit the fowls to take plenty of exercise. 



Feather-eating — Diarrhea 351 

DIARRHEA 

Diarrhea is caused by some irritation of the 
digestive system. Depression and loss of appe- 
tite frequently precede it. If the diarrhea is at 
all serious the excrement may be mixed with mucus 
or blood. Fowls suffering from this disease should 
be placed in comfortable quarters and given clean, 
wholesome food that is easily . digested. Foods of 
gelatinous nature, like cooked linseed meal, are 
specially recommended. Some poultrymen place 
a high value on charcoal which has been broken 
into small pieces, about the size of a kernel of corn. 
This is placed before them and left to the judgment 
of the fowls to eat what is needed. A few drops of 
laudanum is recommended in severe cases. 

SALT POISONING 

Salt in small doses, as before stated, is very 
beneficial, but large quantities may produce death. 
It is stated on good authority that one-half an 
ounce to one ounce is fatal to a chicken. Salt fish 
and some salt meats, and the brine in which meats 
have been preserved, are specially dangerous. 

Whites of eggs and the liquor of boiled flax- 
seed are recommended as remedies. Laudanum 
and finely powdered chalk in water, together or 
singly, may sometimes be given with good effect. 



352 Farm Poultry 

Laudanum is especially valuable when consider- 
able pain is manifest. 

EATS 

Rats sometimes become very troublesome in 
poultry-houses, and the question of their extermi- 
nation is often a most perplexing one. Precau- 
tionary measures are usually the most satisfactory. 
If the buildings are so constructed that rats can- 
not burrow under them, the battle is largely won. 
If, however, the rats find suitable homes about 
poultry-houses, and cannot be driven out by ordin- 
ary methods, much annoyance and often severe 
loss may result. When traps and cats will not 
suffice, more extreme measures must be adopted. 
Sometimes it is advisable to remove the fowls 
temporarily and hunt the rats by means of ferrets. 
In some cases it may be necessary to resort to poison- 
ing. In a general way it may be stated that animals 
should not be poisoned except in extreme cases. The 
author has on several occasions found it necessary 
to use poison to rid the premises of these pests. A 
little strychnine was placed in each of many small 
pieces of cheese. These little pieces were dropped 
into the rat holes and other places frequented by 
the vermin, care being taken in every case to cover 
the holes with boards so that the fowls would be 
prevented from gaining access to the poison. While 



Hawks, Crows, Etc. 353 

the fowls were not killed or in any way injured by 
this method of killing rats, the practice is always 
accompanied with more or less danger, particu- 
larly as it is necessary to place the poison near 
places frequented by the fowls. 

HAWKS, CROWS, ETC. 

It is sometimes necessary to protect the yards 
and runs from the depredations of these chicken 
thieves. Crows sometimes become so bold that 
they are serious pests in yards where Uttle chickens 
are given their hberty. Covering the yard with 
wire netting is a perfect protection. If there are 
bushes in the yard, under which the fowls may 
hide, the depredations will be much lessened. 




w 



APPENDIX 

SOME IMPORTANT POULTRY PUBLICATIONS 

American Standard of Perfection. — American Poultry Associa- 
tion. Published by the Association. 

American Standard Poultry Book. — John Taggart. Published 
by Wm. L. Alhson, New. York. 

Animal Protein for Ducks. — New York State Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station Bulletin No. 259. 

Artificial Incubating and Brooding. — Rehable Poultry Journal 
Quincy, 111. 

Appliances and Methods for Pedigree Poultry Breeding. — 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 159. 

Asiatics. — ReUable Poultry Journal, Quincy, 111. 

Bantam Fowl. — Reliable Poultry Journal, Quincy, 111. 

Blackheads in Turkeys. — Rhode Island Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station Bulletin No. 124; Oregon Agricultural Experi- 
^ ment Station Bulletin No. 95. 

Book of Poultry. — L. Wright. Pubhshed by Cassell & Co., 
London. 

Breeding for Egg Production. — Maine Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station Bulletin No. 192. 

Breeds, Poultry Raising. — Colorado Agricultural Experiment Sta- 
tion Bulletin No. 164. 

Breeds. — Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 150. 

The Book of Hamburgs. — Theo. Hines. Published by Inland 
Poultry Journal Co., IndianapoUs, Ind. 

The Briggs System, Profits in Poultry Keeping Solved.^ 
Jidgar Briggs, Springfield, Ohio. 

(355) 



356 Appendix 

Broilers and Roasters. — Jno. H. Robinson. Farm Poultry Pub- 
lishing Co., Boston. 

Brooding. — West Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station Bul- 
letin. 

Brooder, Fresh-Air. — Maine Agricultural Experiment Station 
Bulletin No. 193. 

Building Poultry-Houses. — Cornell Agricultural Experiment 
Station Bulletin No. 274. 

Capons and Caponizing. — G. Q. Dow, New York. 

Capons and Caponizing. — United States Department of Agri- 
culture, Farmer's Bulletin No. 452. 

Capons for Profit. — Cyphers. 

Chick Book. — Reliable Poultry Journal, Quincy, 111. 

Chicken Hatching and Rearing. — H. A. House, St. Paul, Minn. 

Common Sense Poultry Doctor. — John H. Robinson, Boston. 

Curtain-Front Poultry-House. — Theo. Whitman. American 
Poultry Journal Publishing Co., Chicago, 111. 

Development of the Chick. — Frank R. Lillie. H. Holt & Co., N. Y. 

Diseases of Poultry. — Dr. D. E. Salmon. Published by Geo. E. 
Howard & Co., Washington, D. C. 

The Dollar Hen. — M. M. Hastings. Acadian Press. 

Duck Culture. — James Rankin. Published by the Author, South 
Easton, Mass. 

Ducks and Geese. — Reliable Poultry Journal, Quincy, 111. 

Ducks and Geese. — United States Department of Agriculture, 
Farmers' Bulletin No. 164. 

Drawn vs. Undrawn Poultry. — United States Department of 
Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry, Circular No. 70. 

Economy of Using Animal Food in Poultry Feeding. — Bulletin 
No. 149. Published by New York Agricultural Experiment 
Station, Geneva, N. Y. 

Egg and Poultry Raising at Home. — M. M. Elkinton. Double- 
day, Page & Co., New York City. 

Egg Production. — Maine Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 
No. 193. 

Egg Trade of United States. — United States Department of Agri- 
culture, Bureau Animal Industry, Circular No. 140. 



Appendix 357 

Eggs and Their Uses as Food.— United States Department of 

Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 128. 
Eggs— Classes of, for Market.— United States Department of 

Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry, Circular No. 140. 
Eggs and Egg Farms. — Reliable Poultry Journal, Quincy, 111. 
Experiments with Geese.— Eighth Annual Report. Published 

by Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station, Kingston, 

R. I. 
Experiments with Turkeys. — Sixth Annual Report. Published 

by Rhode Island Agricultiu-al Experiment Station, Kingston, 

R.I. 
Facts about White Diarrhea.— Dr. P. T. Woods. Reliable 

Poultry Journal Publishing Co., Quincy, 111. 
Fattening Fowls.— Ernest Cobb. Published by The Feathered 

World, London. 
The Feathers Practical Pigeon Book. — Josiah C. Long. G. E. 

Howard Pubhshing Co., Washington, D. C. 
Feeding Experiments with Laying Hens. — Bulletin No. 90. 

Published by New York Agricultural Experiment Station, 

Geneva, N. Y. 
First Lessons in Poultry Keeping. — J. H. Robinson. Farm 

Poultry Pubhshing Association, Boston. 
From the Shell to the Show Room. — R. E. Jones, and Theo. 

Hewee. Pubhshed by Inland Poultry Journal Co., Indianopolis, 
- Ind. 
Fowls: Care and Feeding.— G. C. Watson, Farmers' Bulletin 

No. 41. Published by the United States Department of Agri- 
culture, Washington, D. C. 
Gapeworms of Fowls.— H. D. Walker. Published by the Author, 

Newburg, N. Y. 
Gapes.— Delaware Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 47. 
Geese, Standard Varieties and Management. — United States 

Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 64. 
Goose Breeding.— Tenth Annual Report. Published by Rhode 

Island Agricultural Experiment Station, Kingston, R. I. 
Goose Septicemia. — Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Sta- 
tion Bullerin No. 86. 



358 Appendix 

Guinea fowl and its Use as Food. — United States Department 
of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 234. 

House Construction. — Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station 
Bulletin No. 266. 

How TO Dress Poultry. — S. V. Thomas. Published by A. D. 
Hosterman Company, Binghamton, N. Y. 

How to Keep Hens for Profit. — C. S. Valentine. Published by 
The Macmillan Company, N. Y. 

How TO Make Poultry Pay. — F. G. Paynter. 

Hamburgs up to Date. — Charles Holt. Published by The 
Feathered World, London. 

Illustrated Book of Domestic Poultry. — Martin Doyle. Pub- 
lished by Porter & Coats, Philadelphia. 

Improvement of the Egg Farm. — United States Department of 
Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin No. 141. 

Incubation and Brooding. — E. B. Hawks, Chnton, Wis. 

Incubation and Its Natural Laws. — C. A. Cyphers. 

Incubators and Their Management. — J. H. Sutcliffe. Doubleday, 
Page & Co., New York City. 

Indian Game Fowl.— G. T. Whitefield. Published by The Fan- 
ciers' Gazette, London. 

Indian Runner Duck Book. — C. S. Valentine, Ridgewood, N. J. 

Infectious Diseases of Turkeys. — Seventh Annual Report. 
Published by Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station, 
Kingston, R. I. 

Inheritance of Fecundity. — Maine Argicultural Experiment 
Station Bulletin No. 166. 

Inheritance in Poultry. — C. B. Davenport, Washington, D. C. 

Labor-Saving Poultry Appliances. — Cornell Experiment Station 
Bulletin No. 284. 

Laying Hens, Selection of. — Kansas Agricultural Experiment 
Station Bulletin No. 164. 

Lloyd's Modern Poultry Book. — W. B. Lloyd. Published by 
Howard & Wilson Publishing Co., Chicago. 

Management of Poultry. — United States Department of Agri- 
culture, Farmers' Bulletin 287. 

Marketing of Eggs. — Ohio State University Bulletin No. 8. 



Appendix 359 

Marketing OF Eggs Theough the Creamery. — United States 

Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 445. 
Making Poultry Pay. — Powell. 
Marketing of Poultry Products. — Connecticut Agricultural 

Experiment Station Bulletin No. 38. 
Miller System Book. — A. D. Hosterman Company, Binghamton, 

N. Y. 
MiNORC AS . — Northrup . 

Money in Broilers and Squabs. — M. K. Boyer, Hammonton, N. J. 
Moulting of Fowls. — Cornell University Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station Bulletin No. 258. 
National Standard Squab Book. — C. E. Rice. American Poultry 

Journal Publishing Co., Chicago, 111. 
New Book of Poultry. — Lewis Wright, London. 
New Egg Farm.— H. H. Stoddard. Published by Orange Judd 

Company, New York. 
The Orpingtons. — The ReUable Poultry Journal Publishing Co., 

Quincy, 111. 
One Hundred Formulas and Receipts for Poultrymen. — 

Miller Pur\ds Poultry Herald Pubhshing Co. St. Paul, Minn. 
Parasites of Poultry. — Bulletin No. 131. Pubhshed by North 

Carohna Agricultural Experiment Station, West Raleigh, N. C. 
Perfected Poultry of America. — T. F. McGrew and G. E. 

Howard. Howard Pubhshing Co., Washington, D. C. 
Plymouth Rocks. — Rehable Poultry Journal Pubhshing Co., 

Quincy, 111. 
Poultry Appliances and Handicraft. — Geo. B. Fiske. Orange 

Judd Company, New York. 
Poultry as Food. — United States Department of Agriculture, 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 182. 
Poultry as Food.— Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station 

Bulletin No. 27. 
Poultry Architecture.— G. B. Fiske. Orange Judd Company, 

New York. 
Poultry Book.— Wm. B. Tegetmeier. Pubhshed by Routledge 

& Sons, London. 



360 Appendix 

The Poultry Book. — H. Weir, American Edition. Edited by 
W. G. Johnston, G. O. Brown and others, 3 vols. 

Poultry Culture. — Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station 
Bulletin No. 52. 

Poultry Culture. — I. K. Felch. Published by Donohue, Hen- 
neberry & Co., Chicago. 

Poultry Feeding and Fattening. — G. B. Fiskc. Orange Judd 
Company, New York. 

Poultry-House Construction. — Wisconsin Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station Bulletin No. 215.. 

Poultry-Houses and Fixtures. — Rehable Poultry Journal, 
Quincy, 111. 

Poultry Keeping for Profit. — Bulletin No. 130. Published 
by North CaroUna Agricultural Experiment Station, West 
Raleigh, N. C. 

Practical Poultry Keeper. — L. Wright. Published by Orange 
Judd Company, New York. 

Principles of Brooding. — Cornell University Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station Bulletin No. 277. 

Principles and Practice of Poultry Culture. — J. H. Robinson. 

Profitable Poultry Keeping. — Stephen Beale. Published by 
Routledge & Sons, London. 

Profits in Poultry. — Orange Judd Company. Published by 
Orange Judd Company, New York. 

Profitable Poultry Production. — M. G. Kains. Published by 
Orange Judd Company, New York. 

Progressive Poultry Culture. — Brigham. 

Races of Domestic Poultry. — Brown. 

Science and Art of Poultry Culture. — E. A. Hawkes, Clinton, 
Wis. 

Seven Methods of Feeding Young Chickens. — Cornell Univer- 
sity Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 282. 

Standard Varieties of Chickens. — United States Department 
of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 64. 

Studies of Poultry from Farm to Consumer. — United States 
Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry, Circular 
No. 64. 



Appendix 361 

Successful Brooder House. — Connecticut Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station Bulletin No. 33. 

Successful Poultry Farm. — United States Department of Agri- 
culture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 355. 

Tapeworms of Poultry. — United States Department of Agri- 
culture, Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin No. 12. 

Trap Nests. — Maine Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 
No. 193. 

Turkeys and How to Grow Them. — My rick. Published by 
Orange Judd Company, New York. 

Turkeys, Standard Varieties and Management. — United 
States Depatment of Agriculture Farmers' Bulletin No. 200. 

Twelve Months' Work in the Poultry-Yard. — Theo. Whitman. 

Tuberculosis. — California Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 
No. 161. 

Water-Glass a Preservative for Eggs. — Connecticut Agricul- 
tural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 67. 

White Diarrhea of Young Chicks. — Connecticut Agricultural 
Experiment Station Bulletin No. 68. 

Wyandottes. — Reliable Poultry Journal Publishing Co., Quincy, 
111. 



INDEX 



African geese, 273. 

Air-space necessary, 102. 

Amount of land necessary, 7. 

Amount of salt necessary, 186. 

Andalusians, 35. 

Animal and vegetable food for young 

chickens, 228. 
Animal and vegetable food for young 

ducks, 267. 
Animal meal, 183. 
Arrangement of houses, 88. 
Arrangement of nests, 127. 
Artificial incubation, 204. 
Ash, deficient in food for chicks, 229. 
Asiatics, 46. 

Automatic drinking-fountains, 131. 
Aylesbury ducks, 260. 

Bacillary white diarrhea of young 
chicks, 345; prevention of, 347; 
source of infection, 346. 

Bantams, 86. 

Barred Plymouth Rocks, description 
of, 63; origin of, 63. 

Beets as food, 180; manner of feeding, 
180. 

Best products most remunerative, 12; 
sell quickest, 12. 

Bone cutters, 183. 

Bones as food, 182. 

Bones, fresh cut, 182. 

Bourbon turkeys, 289. 

Bowel disorders of little chicks, 236. 

Brahmas, characteristics of, 48; laying 
qualities of, 50; origin of, 47; varie- 
ties of, 47. 

Breeding, 152. 

Breed pure-bred stock, 163. 



Breeds of ducks, 259. 

Breeds of geese, 270. 

Breeds suitable for broiler rearing, 254. 

Breeds suited to produce capons, 245. 

Breed useful fowls, 168. 

Broiler rearing, 253. 

Broilers, description of, 251; food for, 
254; size of, 252. 

Brooders, 215; classes of, 215; home- 
made, 221 ; requisites of, 217. 

Brown Leghorns, 30. 

Buckwheat as a food, 178. 

Buff Cochins, 52. 

Buff Leghorns, 29. 

Buff Orpingtons, 72. 

Buff Plymouth Rocks, 66. 

Bviildings, foundation of, 102; roofs for, 
109; side walls of, 105; size of, 100. 

Bumble foot, 349; treatment for, 349. 

Business of rearing fowls, 1; suited to 
many persons, 9. 

Cabbage and rape, 181. 

Canned meat foods, 183. 

Capital required, 3. 

Capon and broiler rearing, 241. 

Caponizing, instruments for, 243; oper- 
ation of, 249; results of, 242; when to 
operate, 248. 

Care of incubators, 212. 

Care of little chickens, 224, 231. 

Care of pigeons, 299. 

Characteristics of Bantams, 86; Brah- 
mas, 48 ; Cochins, 52 ; Cornish Games, 
77; Dominiques, 73; Dorkings, 75; 
Faverolles, 54; Frizzles, 85; Houdans, 
76; Javas, 72; Langshans, 53; Orping- 
tons, 70; Plymouth Rocks, 63; 



(363) 



364 



Index 



Polish, 82; Red Caps, 40; Rhode 
Island Reds, 79; Silkies, 84; Sultans, 
85; Wyandottes, 68. 

Characteristics of egg breeds, 16. 

Chickens, number of, in the United 
States, 2. 

Chick rations, 226; manner of feeding, 
227. 

Cholera, 342; how communicated, 342; 
symptoms of, 342 ; treatment for, 343. 

Classes of chickens described, 14-16. 

Classification of breeds, 13. 

Close-feathered egg breeds, 23. 

Clover as food, 179. 

Clover hay, 181. 

Cochins, characteristics of, 52. 

Cold storage for eggs, 329. 

Combination form of roof, 112. 

Common fowls, improvement of, 165. 

Community system of hatching, 213. 

Construction of floors, 113; nests, 129; 
perches, 123; roofs, 110; side walls, 
105; hollow, 107; straw ceilings, 121; 
ventilators, 118. 

Construction of houses, 96 ; economy of, 
87. 

Convenience of buildings, 92; as regards 
labor, 93. 

Corn as a food for laying hens, 175. 

Cornish Games, 77. 

Cramming, 198; machine for, 199; man- 
ner of feeding, 199. 

Cross-breeding, 160. 

Crows, dangers from, 353. 

Dangers of in-and-in -breeding, 159; of 

cross breeding, 161. 
Dark Brahmas, 49. 
Description of egg breeds, 14; of fancy 

breeds, 16; of general purpose 

breeds, 15; of meat breeds, 15. 
Description of gape worm, Syngamus 

trachealis, 335. 
Description of lice, 331; of mites, 334. 
Deteriorated eggs, 321. 
Diarrhea, 351; symptoms of, 351; 

treatment for, 351. 



Diseases and enemies of poultry, 330. 
Diseases of brooder chicks, 237-239. 
Disinfect fattening fowls, 200. 
Disinfectants for roup, 340. 
Disposition of egg breeds, 17; of general- 
purpose breeds, 59; of meat breeds, 

42. 
Dominiques, 73. . , 

Dorkings, 74; description of, 75. 
Drainage, 89. 

Dressed fowls, how cooled, 307. 
Dressed fowls, -when to ship, 312. 
Dressing poultry, 303. 
Drinking-fountains, 130; essentials of, 

133; for little chicks, 234; kinds of, 

130-133. 
Dry-feed hoppers, 233. 
Dry-picking fowls, 306. 
Duck rearing, animal food essential, 

267; feeding troughs for, 267; green 

food for, 268; pure water essential,' 

267; stampeding, 269; water-troughs, 

268. 
Duck rearing, use of disinfectants, 266. 
Ducks and chickens require little land, 

7. 
Ducks, breeds of, 259; Aylesbury, 260; 

Black Cayuga, 263; Call, 264; East 

Indian, 259; Muscovy, 263; Pekin, 

259; Rouen, 261. 
Ducks, cleanliness essential, 265. 
Ducks, food and care, 264; natural 

food, 264. 
Ducks, general discussion, 256; easily 

confined, 258; reared for meat, 256; 

streams or ponds not necessary, 258. 
Ducks, number of, in the United States, 

2. 
Dust-boxes, 133; location of, 134. 

Early maturity of egg breeds, 19. 
Egg breeds, characteristics of, 16, 

disposition of, 17. 
Egg breeds classified, 13; are small or 

medium sized, 14. 
Egg breeds, called "non- sitters," 22; 

close-feathered, 23 ; easily frightened, 



Index 



365 



18; easily frozen, 23; fly readil5% 18; 
generally hardy, 20; good foragers, 
22; mature early, 19; nervous dis- 
position, 19; poor sitters, 20; pro- 
lificacy of, 21. 

Egg breeds described, 14. 

Egg breeds, varieties of, 24. 

Egg-eating, 128, 349. 

Egg production and meat production, 
45. 

Eggs deteriorated, 321; shrunken, 321; 
spoiled, 321. 

Eggs, feeding for, 171; selection for 
fertility, 150; selection of, 145. 

Eggs, forced feeding for, 174. 

Eggs, how prepared for market, 
319. 

Eggs, preser\dng in cold storage, 329. 

Eggs, preser\'ing in lime water, 329; 
preserving in water-glass, 326. 

Eggs, shipping cases for, 322. 

Embden geese, 272. 

Enemies and diseases of poultry, 
330. 

English method of killing, 313. 

English methods of dressing, 312. 

Essentials of a brooder, 217. 

Evaporated milk by-products as food, 
184. 

Exercise and egg production, 172. 

Exercise for little chicks, 230. 

Exercise not necessary for fattening, 
172. 

Failures due to inexperience, 5. 

Fancy breeds, 81. 

Fancy breeds described, 16. 

FaveroUes, 54; description of, 54. 

Feather-eating, 350. 

Feeding and exercise, 191. 

Feeding for eggs, 171. 

Feeding for meat or fattening, 196; 
animal meal, 196; coops, 197; exer- 
cise, 197; grain food, 196. 

Feeding in litter, 191. 

Feeding little chickens, 224; food for, 
225. 



Feed-troughs, 191; for little chicks, 232. 

Fencing yards, 138. 

Fertility of eggs, 151. 

Flavor of eggs affected by food, 173. 

Floors, 113; kinds of, 113. 

Floor space necessary, 100. 

Flying-lofts for pigeons, 300. 

Food for broilers, 254. 

Food for goslings, 276. 

Food, ground, 189. 

Food, manner of feeding, 187; for 

fattening fowls, 200. 
Food, quality of, 172. 
Foraging of egg breeds, 22. 
Forced feeding for eggs, 174. 
Formation of breeds through crossing, 

162. 
Forming machine, 314; how used, 315. 
Form of house, 97. 
Foundation of buildings, 102. 
Fowls, Guinea, 294. 
Freezing, 348; treatment for, 348. 
Fresh bones, 182. 

Fresh eggs, 320; how marketed, 320. 
Frizzles, description of, 85. 
Frozen poultry, 311. 
Fruit trees for yards and parks, 140. 

Gable roof, 110. 

Game fowls, 84 ; varieties of, 84. 

Games, Cornish, 77. 

Gapes, 335; description of, 335; reme- 
dies for, 336. 

Geese, general discussion, 269; African, 
273; Canadian, or Wild, 275; Chinese, 
274; Embden, 272; Toulouse, 271. 

Geese, houses for, 278. 

General-purpose breeds described, 15. 

General-purpose fowls, 57; disposition 
of, 59; early maturing, 60; good 
foragers, 60; good sitters, 60; size of, 
59; useful qualities of, 58. 

Good-sized eggs sell best, 30. 

Goslings, food for, 276; natural food of, 
276. 

Grading fowls for shipment, 318. 

"Grading up," 167. 



366 



Index 



Grain foods, buckwheat, 178; corn, 175; 

linseed meal, 178; oats, 178; wheat, 

177. 
Grain rations for laying hens, 193; 

summer, 193; winter, 193. 
Green foods, necessity of, 178; beets, 

180; cabbage, 181; clover, 179; rape, 

181. 
Grit, necessary, 184. 
Ground food, 189. 
Guinea fowls, 294; esteemed for food, 

295; great rovers, 296; number of 

females to one male, 296. 

Hamburgs, 37; characteristics of, 38; 
unprofitable table fowls, 39; varie- 
ties of, 38. 

Handling eggs through the creamery, 
322. 

Hawks, dangers from, 353. 

Health of fowls, 89. 

Heredity, 152. 

History of Leghorns, 25; of Minorcas, 
33; Andalusians, 33. 

Hollow-side walls, 107. 

Home-made brooders, 221. 

Homers, 301. 

Houdans, description of, 76. 

Houses, construction of, 96; size of, 100; 
movable, 142. 

Houses for geese, 278. 

Houses for pigeons, 300. 

How to feed, 187; little chickens, 225. 

Importance of exercise, 172. 

Importance of the poultry industry, 1. 

Improper brooder conditions, 237. 

Improvement of common fowls, 165. 

Improvement of Leghorns, 26. 

Improvement through variation, 155; 
through in-and-in-breeding, 158. 

In-and-in-breeding, 157. 

Incubating eggs, temperature of, 206. 

Incubator buildings, 210, 211, 214. 

Incubator rooms, 211. 

Incubators, 203; care of, 212; opera- 
tion of, 213. 



Inexperience, cause of failiires, 5. 
Influence of food on color of yolk, 176. 
Investments yield quick returns, 8. 
Irish shipping case, 323. 

Javas, 72. 

Killing fowls for market, 305. 
Kinds of litter, 194. 

Lamp brooders, objections to, 223. 
Land, amount required, 7. 
Langshans, characteristics of, 53. 
Large combs and wattles sensitive to 

cold, 23. 
Late-maturing qualities of meat breeds, 

46. 
Law of heredity, 152. 
Law of variation, 154. 
Laying qualities of Brahmas, 50. 
Laying qualities of geese, 278. 
Leghorns, history of, 25; improvement 

of, 26; hardy, 28; light eaters, 28; 

produce white eggs, 30; size of, 27; 

varieties of, 28. 
Lice, 330; description of, 331; manner of 

propagating, 331; remedies for, 332. 
Lime, necessary, 185. 
Lime water as an egg preservative, 

329. 
Lime water, how made, 329. 
Linseed meal, for molting hens, 178. 
Litter, 194. 

Live poultry, how shipped, 317. 
Locating a poultry-farm, 88. 
Location of windows, 115. 

Machine, forming, 314. 

Maels and egg production, 151. 

Manner of beginning, 6, 

Market price of squabs, 300. 

Marketing poultry products, 302. 

Marking packages, 311. 

Material for nests, 130. 

Maturing qualities of general purpose 

breeds, 60. 
Meat breeds described, 15, 



Index 



367 



Meat breeds, disposition of, 42; ealily 
confined, 43; large fowls, 41; late 
maturing, 46; lasdng qualities of,^ 44; 
poor foragers, 43; quality of flesh, 41; 
varieties of, 46. 

Meat foods, 182; for little chicks, 228. 

Meat production compared to egg pro- 
duction, 45. 

Methods of cooking dressed fowls, 307. 

Mexican turkey, 285. 

Minorcas, description of, 34 ; history of, 
33; varieties of, 33. 

Mites, 334; habits of, 334; remedies for, 
334. 

Money invested yields quick returns, 8. 

Movable houses, 142. 

Muscovy ducks, 263. 

Muslin windows, 119. 

Narragansett turkeys, 287. 

Natural and artificial incubation com- 
pared, 203. 

Natural food, of ducks, 264; of geese, 
276. 

Natural food of goslings, 276. 

Necessary air-space per fowl, 102. 

Nests, 126; arrangement of, 127; mater- 
ial for, 130; size of, 129. 

Number of chickens in the United 
States, 2; ducks in the United States, 
2; geese in the United States, 2; 
turkeys in the United States, 2. 

Number of females to one male, turkeys, 
291 ; guineas, 296. 

Oats as a food, 178. 

Open-front houses, 121. 

Operating incubators, 213. 

Operation for caponizing, 249. 

Origin of Brahmas, 47; Cochins, 51; 
Faverolle, 54; Javas, 72; Leghorns, 
25; Minorcas, 33; Orpingtons, 70; 
Plymouth Rocks, 63; White-faced 
Black Spanish, 36; Wyandottes, 68. 
Orpingtons, general description of, 71 ; 
origin of, 70; size of, 72; varieties of ,72. 

Outdoor brooders, 217. 



Overfeeding, 188. 
Oyster shells, 185. 

Pate de foie gras, 277. 

Pea comb, 48. 

Pea fowls, 297; habits of, 297; objec- 
tions to, 297. 

Packages, how marked, 311. 

Packing dressed fowls for shipment, 309. 

Packing fowls in ice, 310; detailed 
description of, 310. 

Parks and yards, 135. 

Pekin ducks, 259. 

Pepper, 187. 

Perches, construction of, 123; location 
of, 124. 

Pigeons, general discussion, 298; houses 
for, 300. 

Placing an incubator, 209; even tem- 
perature desired, 209. 

Plum trees for the poultry-yard, 140. 

Plumping, 308. 

Plymouth Rocks, 62; varieties of, 63; 
weight of, 63. 

Poisoning from salt, 186; remedies for, 
351. 

Poisoning rats, 352. 

Polish, 82; varieties of, 83. 

Portable poultry-houses, 141. 

Poultry, dressing for market, 302. 

Poultry rearing compared, 4; a business 
of details, 5. 

Poultry, frozen, 311. 

Poultry statistics unreliable, 2. 

Precautions against vermin, 95. 

Preparation for caponizing, 246. 

Preparing capons for market, 250. 

Preparing eggs for market, 319. 

Preparing poultry for market, 302. 

Preserving eggs, 324; various methods, 
of, 325. 

Preventive measures for gapes, 337. 

Produce good-sized eggs, 31. 

Products easy to market, 11, 

Profit from feeding, 188. 

Profits of capon rearing, 240. 

Pure-bred vs. common stock, 165. 



368 



Index 



Quality of flesh of meat breeds, 41. 

Quality of food, 172. 

Quick returns from money invested, 8. 

Raising poultry as a business, 1. 

Rape as food, 181. 

Rations for little chicks, 226; animal 

food, 228; hard-boiled eggs, 229; skim 

milk for, 228. 
Rats, 352; extermination of, 352. 
Rearing capons, 240. 
Rearing squabs, 300. 
Red Caps, 40; characteristics of, 40. 
Remedies for diarrhea, 347. 
Remedies for gapes, 336. 
Remedies for lice, 332; for mites, 334. 
Rhode Island Reds, 79. 
Roofing materials, 113. 
Roofs for poultry-houses, construction 

of, 110; essentials of, 113; form of, 

109; materials for, 113. 
Rooms for incubators, 211. 
Root cutters, 180. 
Rouen ducks, 261. 
Roup, 338; general discussion of, 338; 

symptoms of, 338; treatment for, 339. 
Rules for selecting eggs, 328. 
Rules for selecting turkeys for breeding, 

290. 
Runs, suitable for geese, 270. 
Runts, 301. 

Salt, beneficial, 186; poisonous in large 
quantities, 351. 

Salt, necessary, 186; amount required, 
186. 

Scalding, 307; precautions of, 309. 

Scaly legs, 347; treatment for, 348. 

Selecting eggs, 328. 

Selecting eggs for hatching, 145. 

Selection for vigor, 147;. for egg produc- 
tion, 148; for utility, 170. 

Selection of a breed, 143. 

Selection of an incubator, 207. 

Selection of breeding stock, turkeys, 
290. 

Shed-roof, 111. 



Shipping-cases for eggs, 322. 

Shipping-crates, ,317. 

Shipping live poultry, 317. 

Shrunken eggs, 321. 

Shutters for windows, 115. 

Side walls, construction of, 105. 

Silkies, description of, 84. 

Size of egg breeds, 14 ; fancy breeds, 59 ; 

general purpose, 59; meat breeds, 41. 
Size of fowls to caponize, 246. 
Skim milk, 183; for little chicks, 228. 
Slate turkeys, 288. 
Slight elevation preferred, 90. 
Soft foods most profitable, 189. 
Solid colors preferred, 33. 
Solid side walls, construction of, 105. 
South side of house desirable for yards, 

92. 
Spanish fowls, 36. 
Species of native turkeys, 285. 
Spraying for lice, 333. 
Spoiled eggs, 321. 
Squabs, 300; market prices of, 300; 

varieties of, 301. 
Squabs, food for, 301. 
Statistics, unreliable, 2. 
Straw as litter, 194; buckwheat hulls, 

194. 
Sulphur, 187. 

Sultans, description of, 85. 
Sunshine desirable, 90. 
Superior products create new demands, 

12. 
Symptoms of cholera, 342; of roup, 

338. 
Syngamus trachealis, 335. 

Temperature of incubating eggs, 206. 

Theory of incubation, 205. 

Time of feeding, 190. 

Time of year to begin, 6. 

Time to caponize, 246, 248; to selJ 

broilers, 252. 
Toulouse geese, 271. 
Transmission of characters, 153. 
Treatment for bumble foot, 349. 
Treatment for cholera, 343. 



Index 



369 



Treatment, for freezing, 348; for scaly 

■legs, 348. 
Treatment for roup, 339. 
Troughs, water, for ducks, 268. 
Turkeys, care and food for the young, 

292; first food for, 293; grain foods 

for, 294. 
Turkeys, general discussion, 280. 
Turkeys, selection of breeding stock, 

290. 
Turkeys, varieties #f, 285; Black, 288; 

Bourbon, 289; Bronze, 286; Buff, 

288; Narragansett, 287; Slate, 288; 

White Holland, 287. 

United States Census Report, 2. 
Useful qualities of fowls, 44. 

Variation, 154; law of, 154; male leads 
in, 156. 

Varieties of Bantams, 86. 

Varieties of egg breeds, 24. 

Varieties of meat breeds, 46. 

Varieties of pigeons for squab rearing, 
301. 
■ Varieties of Polish, 83. 

Vegetable and animal nitrogen com- 
pared, 182. 

Ventilation, 117; by means of straw 
ceilings, 120; open-front houses, 121. 



Ventilators, construction of, 118. 
Vermin, precautions against, 95. 
Vigorous fowls most profitable, 188. 

Water-glass as an egg preservative, 
326; how made, 327. 

Wheat as a food for laying hens, 177. 

When to ship poultry, 312. 

White diarrhea, 345. 

White-faced Black Spanish, 36. 

White Leghorns, 30. 

White or Brown Leghorns preferred, 32, 

White Orpingtons, 72. 

White Plymouth Rocks, 65. 

Wild and domesticated turkeys com- 
pared, 281. 

Wild turkey crosses, 282. 

Wild turkeys, where found, 280. 

Windows, number and size of, 115; 
location of, 115; shutters for, 115. 

Wyandottes, description of, 69; noted 
for utility, 70; origin of, 68; size of, 
68; varieties of, 70. 

Yards and parks, 135; cultivation of, 

138; fruit trees for, 140. 
Yolk, color of, affected by food, 170. 
Young ducks, food for, 267. 
Young fowls require more exercise, 8: 

more land required, 11. 



The following pages contain advertisements 
of books on kindred subjects 



How to Keep Hens for Profit 

By C. S. VALENTINE 

Cloth, illustrated, 12mo, $1.50 net; postpaid, $1.63 

"The Plymouth Rock, Java, Dominique, Wyandotte, Rhode Island 
Red, and Buckeye breeds are discussed in the first few chapters. Con- 
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— Farmers' Tribune. 

The Beginner in Poultry 

By C. S. VALENTINE 

Decorated Cloth, profusely illustrated, 12mo, $1.60 net; postpaid, $1.63 

It has been estimated that of the five million people who are raising 
poultry in this country today half have gone at it blindly. And it is 
just as impossible to make a success of the poultry business without 
preparation as it is impossible to succeed in any other business without 
an acquaintance with the fundamentals. The difficulty which the 
novice has experienced in going at the raising of chickens systematically 
in the past has been that he could find no book in which the essentials — 
only the essentials and all of them — of poultry-raising are given. To 
write such a book has been Mr. Valentine's purpose In "The Beginner 
in Poultry" he discusses the different breeds of fowls, the tji^es of houses, 
feeding and the kinds of food, raising chickens for the market and for 
their eggs, diseases and their cures and everything else which will be of 
value for the one who is starting out — and much for the seasoned poul- 
try-raiser as well. 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

PUBLISHERS 64-66 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK 



THE RURAL OUTLOOK SET 

By Professor L. H. BAILEY 

Director of the New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell University 

Four Volumes. Each, cloth, 12mo. Uniform binding, attractively boxed. $5.00 
net per set; carriage extra. Each volume also sold separately. 

In this set are included three of Professor Bailey's most popular books as well as a 
hitherto unpublished one, — "The 'Country-Life Movement." The long and persist- 
ent demand for a uniform edition of these little classics is answered with the publica- 
tion of this attractive 



The Country-Life Movement 

Cloth, 12mo, 220 pages, $1.25 net; by mxiil, $1.34 

This hitherto unpublished volume deals with the present movement for the re- 
direction of rural civilization, discussing the real country-life problem as distin- 
guished from the city problem, known as the back-to-the-Iand movement. 

The Outlook to Nature (New and Revised Edition) 

Cloth, 12mo, 195 pages, $1.25 net; by mail, $1.34 

in this alive and bracing book, full of suggestion and encouragement, Professor 
Bailey argues the importance of contact with nature, a sympathetic attitude 
toward which "means greater efficiency, hopefulness, and repose." 

The State and the Farmer (New Edition) 

Cloth, 12mo, $1.25 net; by mail, $1.34 

It is the relation of the farmer to the government that Professor Bailey here discusses 
in its varying aspects. He deals specifically with the change in agricultural 
methods, in the shifting of the geographical centers of farming in the United 
States, and in the growth of agricultural institutions. 

The Nature Study Idea (New Edition) 

Cloth, 12mo, $1.25 net; by mail, $1.34 

"It would be well," the critic of The Tribune Farmer once wrote, "if 'The Nature 
Study Idea' were in the hands of every person who favors nature study in the 
public schools, of every one who is opposed to it, and, most important, of every- 
one who teaches it or thinks he does." It has been Professor Bailey's purpose to 
interpret the new school movement to put the young into relation and sumpatby 
with nature, — a purpose which he has admirably accomplished. 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

PUBLISHERS 64-66 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK 



RURAL SCIENCE SERIES 

Edited by L. H. BAILEY 



On Selection of Land, etc. 

Isaac P. Roberts' The Farmstead . . . . . $1 50 

On Tillage, etc. 

F. H. King's The Soil 1 50 

Isaac P. Roberts' The Fertility of the Land . .- . 1 50 

F. H. King's Irrigation and Drainage 1 50 

Edward B. Voorhees' Fertilizers 1 25 

Edward B. Voorhees' Forage Crops . . . . . 1 50 

J. A. Widtsoe's Dry Farming 1 50 

L. H. Bailey's Principles of Agriculture .... 1 25 

On Plant Diseases, etc. 

E. C. Lodeman's The Spraying of Plants .... 1 25 

On Garden-Making 

L. H. Bailey's Garden-Making 1 50 

L. H. Bailey's Vegetable-Gardening 1 50 

L. H. Bailey's Forcing Book . l 25 

On Fruit-Growing, etc. 

L. H, Bailey's Nursery Book 1 50 

L. H. Bailey's Fruit-Growing 1 50 

L. H. Bailey's The Pruning Book 1 50 

F. W. Card's Bush Fruits . 1 50 



On the Care of Live-stock 

Nelson S. Mayo's The Diseases of Animals . 
W. H. Jordan's The Feeding of Animals 

I. P. Roberts' The Horse 

~M. W. Harper's Breaking and Training of Horses 
George C. Watson's Farm Poultry. 



1 50 
1 50 
1 25 
1 50 
1 25 



On Dairy Work, Farm Chemistry, etc." 

Henry H. Wing's Milk and Its Products .... 1 50 

J. G. Lipman's Bacteria and Country Life .... 1 50 

On Economics and Organization 

I. P. Roberts' The Farmer's Business Handbook . . 1 25 

George T. Fairchild's Rural Wealth and Welfare . . 1 25 

H. N. Ogden's Rural Hygiene 1 50 

J. Green's Law for the American Farmer .... 1 50 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

PUBLISHERS 64-66 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK 



THE RURAL MANUALS 

Edited by L. H. BAILEY 



Manual of Farm Animals 



A Practical Guide to the Choosing, Breeding and Keep of Horses, 
Cattle, Sheep and Swine. 

By MERRITT W. HARPER 

Assistant Professor of Animal Husbandry in the New York State College of Agri- 
culture at Cornell University 
Illustrated, decorated cloth, 12mo, 645 pages, index, $2.00 net; 
by mail, $2.18 
"The work is invaluable as a practical guide in raising farm animals." 

— Morning Telegram. 
"A book deserving of close study as well as being handy for Treference, and 
should be in the possession of every farmer interested in stock." — Rural World. 



Manual of Gardening 



A Practical Guide to the Making of Home Grounds and the Growing of 
Flowers, Fruits and Vegetables for Home Use. 

By L. H. BAILEY 

Illustrated, cloth, 12mo, 644 pages, $2.00 net; by mail, $2.17 
This new work is a combination and revision of the main parts of two other 
hooks by the same author, "Garden Making" and "Practical Garden Book," 
together with much new material and the result of the experience of ten added 
years. Among the persons who collaborated in the preparation of the other two 
books, and whose contributions have been freely used in this one, are C. E. Hunn, 
a gardener of long experience; Professor Ernest Walker, reared as a commercial 
florist; Professor L. R. Taft, and Professor F. A. Waugh, well known for their 
studies and writings on horticultural subjects. 

A STANDARD WORK REVISED AND ENLARGED 

The Farm and Garden Rule Book 

By LIBERTY H. BAILEY 

Illustrated, cloth, 12mo, $2.00 net 
When Professor Bailey's "Horticulturist's Rule Book" was published nearly 
twenty-five years ago, the volume became a standard agricultural work running 
through sixteen editions. Taking this book as a basis the author has now made a 
wholly new book, extending it to cover the field of general farming, stock-raising, 
dairying, poultry-rearing, horticulture, gardening, forestry, and the like. It is 
essentially a small cyclopedia of ready rules and references packed full from cover 
to cover of condensed, meaty information and precepts on almost every leading 
subject connected with country life. 

IN PREPARATION 

Manual of Home-Making. Manual of Cultivated Plants 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

PUBLISHERS 64-66 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK 



Cyclopedia of American Agriculture 

Edited by L. H. BAILEY 

Director of the College of Agriculture and Professor of Rurai Economy, 
Cornell University. 

With 100 full-page plates and more than 2,000 illustrations 
in the text; four volumes; the set, $20.00 net; half morocco, 
$32.00 net; carriage extra 

VOLUME I— Farms VOLUME III— Animals 

VOLUME II— Crops VOLUME IV — The Farm and the Community 

"Indispensable to public and reference libraries . . . readily 
comprehensible to any person of average education." — The Nation. 

"The completest existing thesaurus of up-to-date facts and opinions 
on modern agricultural methods. It is safe to say that many years 
must pass before it can be surpassed in comprehensiveness, accuracy, 
practical value, and mechanical excellence. It ought to be in every 
library in the country." — Record-Herald, Chicago. 



Cyclopedia of American Horticulture 

Edited by L. H. BAILEY 

With over 2,800 original engravings; four volumes; the set, 
$20.00 net; half morocco, $32.00 net; carriage extra 

"This really monumental performance will take rank as a standard 
in its class. Illustrations and text are admirable. . . . Our own 
conviction is that while the future may bring forth ampUfied editions 
of the work, it will probably never be superseded. Recognizing 
its importance, the pubhshers have given it faultless form. The 
typography leaves nothing to be desired, the paper is calculated to 
stand wear and tear, and the work is at once handsomely and 
attractively bound." — New York Daily Tribune. 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

PUBLISHERS 64-66 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK 



OCT 10 W2 



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